LIBRARY 


LADY  MACDUFF— THE  FIRST  300-EcG  HEN 

This  Oregon  Agricultural  College  hen  has  demonstrated  the  high  egg-pro- 
ducing possibilities  of  the  domestic  hen  by  laying  303  eggs  in  12  months,  512 
eggs  in  24  months,  and  679  eggs  in  36  months. 


POULTRY  BREEDING 
AND  MANAGEMENT 


By 
JAMES    DRYDEN 

Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry  at  the 
Oregon  Agricultural  College 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

1916 


COPYRIGHT,   1916,  BY 

OEANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 

All  Eights  Eeserved 

Main  Lib 
Agric.  Dt^t*. 


Printed  in  U.  5".  ^. 


PREFACE 

THERE  need  be  no  apologies  for  new  poultry  books.  The 
industry  is  important,  the  poultry  constituency  large,  and 
one  poultry  book  representing  the  finding  of  one  author 
would  hardly  be  presumed  to  meet  all  demands.  In  these 
days  of  progress  in  the  science,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  of 
poultry  husbandry,  it  is  imperative  that  new  compilations 
be  made  and  new  books  published  at  frequent '  intervals, 
that  the  poultry  keeper  may  receive  the  benefit  of  early 
knowledge  of  new  discoveries. 

The  remarkable  development  of  poultry  culture  during 
the  past  two  decades  is  one  of  the  outstanding  features  of 
American  agriculture.  Twenty  years  ago  the  possibilities 
of  poultry-keeping  as  an  industry  were  scarcely  dreamed 
of.  While  it  does  not  yet  receive  the  consideration  it 
deserves — far  from  it — nevertheless  it  has  made  immense 
gains  both  in  popular  recognition  and  in  production.  This 
has  been  brought  about  by  a  better  realization  of  the  pro- 
ductive value  of  the  hen.  The  idea  of  "fuss  and  feathers," 
long  associated  with  the  keeping  of  fowls,  has  gradually 
given  way  to  the  idea  of  a  poultry  industry  whose  first 
and  only  business,  as  an  industry,  is  the  production  of 
eggs  and  meat. 

With  the  development  of  the  industry,  there  has  been  a 
growing  demand  for  information  dealing  with  practical 
problems  of  production.  The  poultry  producer  has  his 
full  share  of  problems.  It  must  be  confessed  that  the 
available  literature  has  been  insufficient  and  fragmentary. 
This  lack,  however,  is  being  rapidly  filled,  and,  as  a  result, 
in  all  parts  of  the  country,  there  are  now  examples  of  sue- 


342853 


VI 


PREFACE 


cessf ul  poultry  farms ;  not  that  the  special  poultry  farm  is 
by  any  means  a  true  measure  of  the  poultry  industry,  for 
the  industry  is,  and  probably  always  will  be,  largely  a  busi- 
ness for  the  general  farmer,  but  that  the  success  of  special 
poultry-keeping  is  a  measure  of  the  advance  that  has  been 
made  in  the  solution  of  practical  poultry  problems. 

This  book,  therefore,  has  been  prepared  that  it  may  add 
to  the  available  poultry  literature;  not  that  it  may  sup- 
plant other  books,  nor  that  it  should  be  the  last  word  on 
the  subject.  The  author  is  fully  conscious  of  its  imper- 
fections; but,  to  every  student  of  poultry  culture,  and  to 
every  poultry  farmer,  he  earnestly  hopes  that  it  may  bring 
some  helpful  message. 

JAMES  DRYDEN. 
Corvallis,  Oregon. 


CONTENTS 

Chapter  Page 

I.  Historical  Aspect       1 

II.  Evolution  of  Modern  Fowl      11 

III.  Modern  Development  of  Industry 19 

IV.  Classification  of  Breeds 24 

V.  Origin  and  Description  of  Breeds 30 

VI.  Principles  of  Poultry  Breeding      61 

VII.  Problem  of  Higher  Fecundity 92 

VIII.  Systems  of  Poultry  Farming 138 

IX.  Housing  of  Poultry 160 

X.  Kind  of  House  to  Build 187 

XI.  Fundamentals  of  Feeding       210 

XII.  Common  Poultry  Foods 237 

XIII.  Methods  of  Feeding 249 

XIV.  Methods  of  Hatching  Chickens       281 

XV.  Artificial  Brooding 320 

XVI.  Marketing  Eggs  and  Poultry 333 

XVII.  Diseases  and  Parasites  of  Fowls  375 


vii 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Lady  Macduff.   The  first  300-egg  hen Frontispiece 

Jungle  fowl  cock  (Gallus  bankivus) 3 

Jungle  fowl  hen  (Gallus  bankivus) 4 

White  Leghorn  cockerel       31 

Black  Minorca  male 32 

Barred  Plymouth  Rock  cockerel 39 

Barred  Rock  hen,  showing  fine  barring 40 

White  Wyandotte  hen 42 

White  Wyandotte  cock 43 

Rhode  Island  Reds 44 

White  Orpington  hen 48 

Light  Sussex 49 

Speckled  Sussex 50 

Domesticated 51 

Faverolle  hen 51 

Three  breeds  of  different  types  winning  in  Australian  laying 

competitions 53 

Good  utility  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  cockerel 55 

Light  Brahmas       56 

Buff  Cochin  hen 57 

Le  Mans — A  special  French  meat  breed 58 

Points  of  the  fowl 59 

La  Fleche       60 

Variation  the  opportunity  of  the  breeder 64 

Result   of  crossing  White   Wyandotte   and   Black   Minorca, 

showing  barring 67 

Breed  improvers.     Pedigreed  cockerels,  from  stock  with  rec- 
ords of  over  200  eggs  in  a  year 69 

Barred  Plymouth  Rock  male.    Son  of  a  218-egg  hen      . .      . .  71 

A  good  type  of  breeder  from  200-egg  stock 72 

Barred  Plymouth  Rock  male,  Oregon  Station 73 

Result  of  breeding  for  a  fancy  point 74 

Barred  Rock  and  White  Leghorn  first  cross,  male . .      . .      . .  78 

ix 


x  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Barred  Rock  and  White  Leghorn,  first  cross,  female     . .      . .  78 
Barred  Rock  and  White  Leghorn  first  cross.     Flock  showing 

dominant  white       79 

White  Wyandotte-Black  Minorca  male,  first  cross,  with  white 

plumage  and  rose  comb 80 

The  recessive  color  barring 81 

Oregon  Station  hen  C543.  An  exceptional  layer  though  inbred  89 

Like  begets  like 92 

Like  does  not  always  beget  like       93 

Oregon  Station  hen  D18,  271  eggs  in  a  year 93 

Barred  Rock  hen  A78,  record  212  eggs 94 

A  good  Plymouth  Rock  head  with  the  stamp  of  vigor     . .      . .  95 

Barred  Plymouth  Rock  hen,  65,  218  eggs 96 

Daughter  of  65,  laid  218  eggs.    Granddaughter,  laid  221  eggs  97 

A  mother  of  high  producers,  A122  laid  259  eggs  in  a  year     . .  98 

A  family  of  high  producers,  daughters  of  A122       99 

A77,  214  eggs.    A  producer  of  good  layers      100 

Daughters  of  A77 101 

Granddaughters  of  A77       102 

A79,  219  eggs.    A  good  layer  and  breeder  of  good  layers. .      . .  104 

Granddaughters  of  A79 105 

White  Leghorn  hen  034,  229  eggs  in  first  year 107 

Daughters  of  034 107 

Oregona — White  Leghorn  hen.     Record  of  more  than  1,100 

eggs 108 

Hen  B42  laid  834  eggs  in  four  years 113 

Hen  A60  laid  816  eggs  in  four  years 113 

Belle  of  Jersey,  649  eggs  in  three  years 116 

Queen  Utana,  816  eggs  in  five  years 116 

Rose-Comb  Brown  Leghorn  hen,  442  eggs  in  two  years. .      . .  116 

Three  Cornell  long-distance  layers 117 

Lady  Macduff,  taken  day  after  she  laid  her  303d  egg     . .      . .  117 

The  303d  egg  of  Lady  Macduff 117 

Lady  Macduff  and  10  daughters 118 

Pedigree  of  Lady  Macduff 118 

Lady  Macduff  in  full  plumage  in  her  second  year 119 

Son  of  Lady  Macduff 119 

Daughter  of  Lady  Macduff 119 

Mother  of  Lady  Maeduff      120 

Lady  Showyou       121 

C543  at  end  of  first  12  months'  laying      122 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

Page 

Oregon  hen  C543,  291  eggs 122 

Highest  record  hen  at  the  Missouri  1913-14  competition . .  . .  122 

The  head  indicating  laying  quality 123 

Breeder  of  poor  layers,  20  eggs  in  a  year 124 

White  Leghorn  hen,  laid  1  egg  in  a  year 124 

A  good  layer  from  poor  laying  stock 125 

Poor  layers  from  good  laying  stock 125 

Barred  Plymouth  Rock  hen  laid  74  eggs  in  a  year 126 

Another  view  of  Oregona 126 

White  Leghorn  hen,  242  eggs  in  first  year 126 

Hen  E248,  302  eggs.  Daughter  of  C516 127 

White  Leghorn  hen  C516,  267  eggs  in  a  year 127 

Two  poor  layers 128 

Utah  Station  Wyandottes 128 

New  Zealand  White  Leghorns 129 

White  Wyandottes  averaged  208.5  eggs  in  Storrs  contest  . .  129 

White  Leghorns  averaged  208.8  eggs  in  Storrs  Competition. .  130 
Winning  pen  in  the  Panama  Pacific  International  Egg-laying 

Competition 130 

The  long  and  the  short  way,  in  breeding  for  eggs 131 

Record  of  a  flock  of  43  fowls  at  the  Oregon  Station  for  two 

years 131 

Good  fall  and  winter  producers  the  best  layers 132 

The  first  layers  the  best  layers 133 

Inheritance  of  egg  production 134, 135 

Egg  organs  of  the  hen 136 

Poultry  keeping  and  dairying 139 

An  Oregon  fruit  and  poultry  farm 141 

A  California  poultry  and  fruit  farm 141 

1,000  pullets  in  prune  orchard 142 

Eggs  and  peaches  from  the  same  ground 143 

Free  range  colony  system  at  Petaluma,  California, 145 

Petaluma  farm  of  120  acres  and  6,000  hens .146 

Cleaning  out  the  houses  on  a  Petaluma  farm 147 

Land  unfit  for  cultivation  is  used  148 

2,000  hens  on  3  acres 148 

Exclusive  poultry  farming  on  the  intensive  system 149 

4,000  hens  on  4  acres 150 

The  intensive  plan 151 

Backyard  egg  farming 152 


xii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

A  poultry  yard  may  be  made  an  attractive  feature  of  the  back- 
yard   153 

A  backyard  Louse  in  which  25  hens  averaged  188  eggs,  . .      . .   154 

Another  backyard  system 155 

A  plan  for  backyard  poultry  keeping       156 

The  first  and  not  the  worst  poultry  house 163 

About  the  worst  poultry  house  that  was  ever  built 164 

An  unsatisfactory  poultry  house 165 

A  boy  with  a  "safe"  horse  and  "spring"  wagon  gathers  the 

eggs 170 

A  rear  view  of  the  Missouri  house,  showing  ventilation  . .      . .  171 

The  Missouri  Poultry  Station  house 172 

The  Oregon  Station's  first  open  front  colony  house 177 

The  improved  Oregon  Station  portable  house 178 

The  Oregon  Station  pullet-testing  yards 179 

Special  breeding  yards,  Oregon  Station 180 

A  colony  house  at  the  Utah  Station 181 

A  scratching  shed  is  an  advantage  where  the  house  room  is 

limited      182 

A  cheap  shed  for  fowls 183 

Colony  houses  used  on  a  Rhode  Island  poultry  farm       . .      . .-  184 

Piano  boxes  utilized  for  hen  houses 185 

Stationary  100-hen  house.     Oregon  Station 188 

Curtain-front  house       189 

The  nests  arranged  under  the  dropping  platform 197 

A  good  broody  coop 198 

The  Oregon  Station  trapnest       200 

Taking  Lady  Macduff  from  the  trapnest  when  she  laid  her 

303d  egg 201 

Portable  fence       204 

Showing  how  fence  may  be  constructed 205 

A  balanced  ration 219 

The  relative  amounts  of  ash,  fat,  protein  and  water  in  eggs. .   220 

Balanced  ration  for  one  hen  for  a  year 226 

Digestive  organs  of  the  fowl       235 

Chickens  threshing  their  own  grain 238 

Oregon  Station  outdoor  dry  food  hopper 255 

A  good  roaster       275 

Feeding  battery  for  fattening      277 

Feeding  Station 279 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

Page 

Parts  of  a  fresh  egg      282 

The  beginning  of  the  end  of  incubation 284 

The  young  graduate 284 

Nests  used  for  sitting  hens 291 

The  Oregon  Station  combination  hatching  and  brooding  coop  293 

A  new  brood  coop 294 

Plan  of  hen  brood  coop 295 

Hen  brooding  at  Oregon  Station       . . 296 

Brood  coop  made  out  of  a  shoe  box 297 

Brooding  coops  on  a  Rhode  Island  farm  298 

Division  of  poultry  labor  at  Petaluma 300 

Chicks  loaded  onto  the  wagon       301 

After  traveling  two  miles  the  chicks  were  put  into  this  brood- 
ing house 302 

Oregon  Station  incubator  house 303 

Interior  of  Oregon  Station  incubator  house      304 

A  150-egg  incubator 305 

A  250-egg  incubator      . .      . .  306 

Hot  water  jug  brooder      . .      . .          . .      . . 325 

Continuous  brooding  system 326 

Room  or  stove  brooding;  a  night  scene       327 

A  stove  brooder  with  hover 328 

A  stove  brooder  showing  hover  and  different  parts 329 

Room  brooding,  with  oil  or  gas  heater  outside  of  room  . .      . .  330 

Flock  of  8,000  young  pullets       330 

Cornell  gasoline  brooder       331 

Terra  cotta  brooder       332 

A  12-dozen  crate  which  may  be  used  for  shipping  eggs  . .      . .  338 

A  roaster  in  a  parcel  post  package 339 

A  parcel  post  package  showing  eggs  wrapped . .  339 

The  rural  mail  carrier  takes  the  eggs  from  the  farm       . .      . .  340 

Commercial  egg  candling 352 

A  kerosene  lamp  set  inside  of  a  box  makes  a  good  tester. .      . .  353 

Instead  of  a  kerosene  lamp,  an  electric  light  bulb  may  be  used  354 

A  fresh  egg — note  small  air  space      355 

A  stale  egg — note  large  air  space       355 

Cans  of  frozen  eggs      361 

Poultry  demonstration  car 367 

Unloading  a  Nebraska  carload  of  poultry  at  San  Francisco. .  3G8 

Dry  picking,  dry  cooling,  and  dry-packed  poultry 370 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Dressed  capon 373 

An  expert  caponizer 373 

A  bad  case  of  roup       381 

Normal  hen's  ovary       387 

Diseased  ovary       387 

Two  white  diarrhoea  chicks 389 

Taking  blood  sample  for  white  diarrhoea  test 391 


POULTRY   BREEDING  AND 
MANAGEMENT 

CHAPTER    I 
HISTORICAL    ASPECT 

Present  races  of  fowls  were  domesticated,  or  reclaimed 
from  the  wild  state,  away  back  about  the  time  that  man  was 
learning  the  rudiments  of  civilization.  When  man  himself 
became  "tame,"  he  set  about  taming  the  wild  things  of  the 
forest  and  the  plain,  in  order  that  they  might  better  supply 
his  needs  for  food,  for  raiment,  and  for  labor.  "A  bird  in 
the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush, ' '  was  undoubtedly  the  im- 
pelling motive  that  led  to  the  domestication  of  the  wild  fowl. 
Savages  were  content  to  depend  upon  the  hunt  for  their 
daily  food  supply.  Centuries  after  the  ancient  peoples  of 
Asia  had  domesticated  the  fowl,  the  Indians  on  this  contin- 
ent had  failed  to  domesticate  the  turkey,  which  is  now  the 
most  highly  prized  bird  for  food,  and  possibly  the  most 
highly  valued  of  any  kind  of  animal  food. 

Civilized  man  desired  a  more  certain  food  supply,  how- 
ever, than  that  of  the  hunt.  To  exercise  his  God-given 
dominion  over  the  earth,  man  had  to  bring  to  his  assistance 
plants  and  animals  that  hitherto  existed  only  in  the  wild 
state.  With  domestication,  came  improvement  in  produc- 
tive qualities.  The  eggs  of  the  wild  fowl  had  no  other  use 
than  reproduction.  She  laid  a  few  eggs  and  hatched 
them.  There  was  no  demand  for  them  for  human  food,  or 
for  use  in  arts  and  manufactures.  The  wild  ancestor  of  our 
domestic  hen  laid  probably  a  dozen  or  twenty  eggs  a  year. 
The  difference  between  that  and  eight  or  ten  dozen  repre- 
sents the  achievement  of  centuries  of  poultry  culture. 


2      POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  purpose  of  domestication  was  undoubtedly  utility. 
There  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  fowls  were  domesticated 
for  any  fancied  or  peculiar  appearance.  There  were  other 
birds  that  appealed  more  to  the  aesthetic.  There  were 
various  species  of  the  pheasant  family,  of  gorgeous  plumage 
and  proud  carriage — all  have  remained  practically  in  their 
natural  state.  If  the  ancients  were  looking  for  something 
to  please  the  eye  or  the  fancy,  some  of  these  would  have 
suited  their  purpose  better  than  the  fowl.  Our  present 
breeds  of  fowls,  however  much  some  of  them  may  be  em- 
bellished with  colors  and  shapes  that  appeal  to  our  fancy 
and  command  our  admiration,  are  without  "pride  of  an- 
cestry/' so  far  as  the  original  jungle  fowl  conformed  to  our 
present-day  standard  of  beauty.  But  it  is  not  surprising 
that  after  thousands  of  years  of  poultry  keeping  we  have 
now  some  breeds  that  have  been  developed  along  fancy  lines 
entirely. 

There  might  have  been  another  object  besides  utility  in 
domesticating  the  fowl.  Semi-barbarous  peoples  of  the 
Orient  were,  and  still  are,  much  addicted  to  the  sport  of 
cock-fighting,  and  the  fighting  qualities  of  the  jungle  fowl 
may  have  appealed  to  them  more  than  any  possible  use  they 
could  make  of  the  fowl  as  a  source  of  food  supply. 

The  fact  that  there  has  been  great  improvement  in  meat 
and  egg  production,  however,  is  pretty  strong  evidence  that 
usefulness  was  the  impelling  motive  in  the  domestication  of 
fowls  and  in  their  breeding  through  all  the  centuries  since 
they  were  weaned  away  from  their  natural  state. 

Origin. — It  is  generally  agreed  among  naturalists  that 
our  present  races  of  domestic  fowls  are  descended  from  a 
wild  jungle  fowl  of  India.  The  Orient  has  given  to  the  world 
the  fowl  as  well  as  many  of  our  domestic  animals.  There 
are  four  species  of  jungle  fowls  from  which  it  is  claimed  by 
different  authorities  that  domestic  fowls  were  descended, 


HISTORICAL  ASPECT 


namely,  Gallus  bankiva,  G.  Sonneratii,  G.  Stanleyii,  G. 
Varius  (or  furcatus).  While  there  has  been  much  discus- 
sion and  difference  of  opinion,  it  is  generally  conceded  that 
the  evidence  points  to  the  Gallus  bankivus  as  the  original 
progenitor.  This  species  is  a  Bantam-sized  fowl,  patterned 
much  after  the  Red  Game  of  our  day.  The  male  Bankivus 
has  the  color  and  carriage  of  the  Game. 

* '  Specimens  of  this  fowl, ' '  says  Mr.  Dixon, '  *  were  brought 
from  the  island  of  Java  and  deposited  in  the  museum  of 
Paris.  They  inhabit  the 
forests  and  borders  of 
woods,  and  are  exceed- 
ingly wild.  On  examin- 
ing the  species,  it  will  be 
found  to  exhibit  many 
points  of  resemblance 
with  our  common  barn- 
yard fowls  of  the 
smaller  or  middling  size. 
The  form  and  color  are 
the  same,  the  comb  and 
wattles  are  smaller,  and 
the  hen  so  m  u  c-h  r  e  - 
sembles  the  common  hen  that  it  is  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish it  except  by  the  less  erect  slant  of  the 
tail.  The  rise  of  the  tail  is  much  more  apparent 
in  the  male,  but  it  may  be  observed  that  in  all  wild  species 
known,  the  tail  does  not  rise  so  high  above  the  level  of  the 
rump,  nor  is  it  so  abundantly  provided  with  covering 
feathers  as  in  the  common  birds.  Feathers  which  fall  from 
the  neck  over  the  top  of  the  back  are,  as  in  other  fowls,  long 
and  with  divided  plumelets  or  braids,  the  feathers  widening 
a  little  and  being  rounded.  The  colors  of  the  plumage  are 
exceedingly  brilliant.  The  head,  the  neck,  and  all  the  long 


JUNGLE  FOWL  COCK  (Gallus  bankivus) 
Reproduced    from    Carnegie    Institution. 
Publication   No.    121,    1909,  by   Charles   S. 
Davenport. 


POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


feathers  of  the  back  which  hang  over  the  rump  are  of  a 
shining,  flame-colored  orange;  the  top  of  the  back,  the 
small  and  middle  coverts  of  the  wings  are  of  a  fine  maroon 
purple ;  the  coverts  of  the  wings  are  black,  tinged  with  irri- 
descent  green ;  the  quill  feathers  of  the  wings  are  russet  red 
on  the  outer  and  black  on  the  inner  edges ;  the  breast,  belly, 
thighs,  and  tail  are  black  and  tinged  with  irridescent  green ; 
the  comb,  cheek,  throat,  and  wattles  are  of  a  more  or  less  vivid 

red;   the   legs  and  feet 
are  grey  and  furnished 

Hk  with   strong   spurs,   the 

iris  of  the  eye  yellow. 

"The  Bankiva  hen  is 
smaller  than  the  cock; 
and  her  tail  is  also  a 
little  horizontal  and 
vaulted ;  she  has  a  small 
comb,  and  the  wattles 
are  very  short ;  the  space 
around  the  neck,  as  well 
as  the  throat,  is  naked; 
on  this  space  are  some 
small  feathers,  distinct 
from  each  other, 
through  which  the  red  skin  can  be  seen;  the  breast  and 
belly  are  light  bay  or  fawn  yellow,  and  on  each  feather  is 
a  small,  clear  ray  along  the  side  of  the  middle  rib  or 
stem ;  the  feathers  of  the  base  of  the  neck  are  long,  with 
disunited  braids,  or  plumelets,  of  a  black  color  in  the 
middle  and  fringed  with  ochre  yellow;  the  back,  the 
coverts,  the  wings,  the  rump  and  the  tail  are  earthy 
grey  marked  with  numerous  black  zigzags;  the  large 
feathers  of  the  wing  are  ashy  grey." 

The  Bankivus  inhabits  northern  India  and  is  found  in 


JUNGLE  FOWL  HEN  (Callus  bankivus) 

Reproduced  from  Carnegie  Institution. 
Publication  No.  121,  1909,  by  Charles  B. 
Davenport. 


HISTORICAL  ASPECT  5 

the  Himalayan  mountains  at  an  altitude  of  4,000  feet ;  high- 
er up  other  species  of  wild  fowl  are  found.  It  also  inhabits 
Burma,  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  the  Philippine  Islands, 
and  the  Island  of  Java. 

The  evidence  in  support  of  a  common  origin  of  all  races 
of  fowls  comes  largely  from  Darwin.  While  Darwin  was 
inclined  to  a  belief  in  a  common  origin  and  saw  nothing  im- 
possible in  this  theory,  at  the  same  time  there  are  indications 
in  his  writings  that  he  thought  it  barely  possible  that  some 
varieties  of  fowls  might  have  been  descended  from  a  dif- 
ferent species,  now  possibly  extinct.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  poultry  fanciers  took  issue  with  Darwin  and  pro- 
claimed it  impossible  that  all  domestic  fowls  could  have  been 
descended  from  one  parent  source. 

Darwin  based  his  conclusions  largely  on  his  own  experi- 
ments, and  while,  as  he  himself  confesses,  the  evidence  may 
not  be  conclusive,  it  is  the  best  evidence  that  we  have,  and 
we  give  here  the  substance  of  it.  The  evidence  pointed  to 
the  Bankivus  as  the  progenitor  of  all  fowls,  first,  because 
it  mated  with  the  tame  fowl  and  produced  offspring,  while 
the  other  species  mentioned  never  or  rarely  crossed.  Dar- 
win dwells  with  considerable  detail  on  this  fact  as  an  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  the  Bankivus.  Sometimes,  however,  dif- 
ferent species  of  animals  will  mate  together  and  produce 
offspring,  but  the  progeny  called  hybrids  are  barren  or  un- 
fertile. The  mule  is  usually  cited  in  illustration  of  this  fact. 
He  is  the  product  of  two  distinct  species  of  animals,  the 
proof  of  which  is  the  fact  that  he  is  barren.  The  horse  and 
the  ass  therefore  could  not  have  had  a  common  origin. 

Darwin,  and  later  others,  not  only  found  that  the  Gallus 
bankivus  freely  mates  with  our  domestic  fowl,  but  that  the 
offspring  are  fertile  and  breed  successfully.  These  experi- 
ments strongly  impressed  Darwin  with  the  belief  that 
Gallus  bankivus  is  the  original  progenitor  of  domestic  fowls. 


8      POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Experiments  along  another  line  pointed  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. Students  of  heredity  know  that  crossing  and  inter- 
crossing breeds  and  varieties  cause  reversion,  or  a  breeding 
back  to  remote  ancestors.  "Why  the  likeness  of  some  ancient 
ancestor  through  the  act  of  crossing  different  breeds  should 
suddenly  reappear  in  the  offspring  after  having  apparently 
disappeared  from  the  face  of  the  earth  centuries  ago  is  one 
of  the  enigmas  of  breeding.  Following  up  the  clue  of  re- 
version, Darwin  found  what  he  claimed  to  be  strong  evi- 
dence pointing  to  the  Gallus  bankiva  as  the  original  ancestor 
of  our  fowls.  He  says  that  Game,  Malay,  Cochin,  Bantam 
and  Silkies,  when  crossed,  revert  to  the  Bankiva.  In  cross- 
ing the  Black  Spanish  and  White  Silkie,  he  found  that  the 
offspring  were  all  black,  except  one  cock  which  resembled 
Gallus  bankiva  so  strongly  that  he  said : '  *  It  was  a  marvelous 
sight  to  compare  this  bird  with  Gallus  bankiva  and  then  with 
its  father." 

He  declared  further  that  the  color  of  the  golden  and  silver 
Pencilled  Hamburgs  pointed  to  their  ancient  progenitors. 
"This  may  be  in  part  explained  by  direct  reversion  to  the 
parent  form,  the  Bankiva  hen,  for  this  bird  has  all  its  upper 
plumage  finely  mottled. ' '  Remarkable,  is  it  not,  that  after 
two  or  three  thousand  years  of  breeding  away  from  the  wild 
fowl,  it  is  possible  in  crossing  to  trace  in  the  color  of  plumage 
and  shape  and  carriage  of  the  offspring  the  descent  of  the 
wild  fowl  to  our  present  modern  breeds.  And  yet  to  scien- 
tists such  as  Darwin,  mute  testimony  of  this  nature  may  be 
more  conclusive  than  the  written  word. 

Darwin's  findings  in  regard  to  the  common  origin  of  the 
domestic  fowl  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  The  domestic  fowls  mate  freely  with  G.  bankivck 

2.  They  mate  very  rarely  with  any  other  species. 

3.  The  Bankiva  hybrids  are  fertile. 

4.  The  hybrids  of  other  species  are  not  fertile. 


HISTORICAL  ASPECT  7 

He  argued  in  favor  of  but  one  origin,  namely  G.  bankiva. 

He  explains  in  the  following  words  how  the  changes  in  the 
fowl  have  come  about,  and  how  it  is  reasonable  to  believe 
that  all  the  breeds  have  descended  from  one  parent  source : 

"...  from  the  occasional  appearance  of  abnormal 
characters,  though  at  first  only  slight  in  degree;  from  the 
effects  of  the  use  and  disuse  of  parts;  possibly  from  the 
direct  effects  of  changed  climate  and  food ;  from  correlation 
of  growth;  from  occasional  reversions  to  old  and  long-lost 
characters ;  from  the  crossing  of  breeds  when  more  than  one 
had  once  been  formed;  but,  above  all,  from  unconscious 
selection  carried  on  during  many  generations. " 

While  the  views  and  conclusions  of  Darwin  were  generally 
those  of  all  naturalists,  there  were  others,  including  poul- 
try writers  and  fanciers,  who  took  strong  grounds  against 
them.  His  conclusions  were  published  in  the  year  1867.  It 
is  worthy  of  note  that  a  gentleman  from  whom  he  got  much 
of  his  poultry  information,  and  whom  he  frequently  quotes 
in  his  book,  later  (1885)  took  issue  with  his  conclusions  that 
all  domestic  fowls  came  from  Gallus  bankivus.  This  man 
was  Mr.  W.  B.  Tegetmeier,  F.Z.S.,  a  noted  poultry  author 
and  authority  in  England,  who  was  associated  with  Darwin 
in  some  of  his  experiments.  Mr.  Tegetmeier  gives  it  as  his 
opinion  that  the  different  species  of  wild  Galli  will  inter- 
breed, and  then  he  says: 

"But  it  is  with  regard  to  the  Eastern  Asiatic  type  of 
fowl  (absurdly  known  as  Cochins  and  Brahmas)  that  my 
doubts  as  to  the  descent  from  the  G.  ferrugineus  (Bankivus) 
are  strongest.  "We  have  in  the  Cochin  a  fowl  so  different, 
from  the  ordinary  domestic  birds  that  when  first  introduced 
the  most  ridiculous  legends  were  current  respecting  it.  Put- 
ting these  on  one  side,  we  have  a  bird  with  many  structural 
peculiarities  that  could  hardly  have  been  induced  by  domes- 
tication. Thus,  the  long  axis  of  the  occipital  foramen  in 


8  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

the  Cochin  is  perpendicular,  in  our  old  breeds  horizontal,  a 
difference  that  could  never  have  been  bred  for,  and  which 
it  is  difficult  to  see  could  be  correlative  with  any  other 
change.  The  same  may  be  said  respecting  the  deep  sulcus 
or  groove  up  the  center  of  the  frontal  bone. 

"The  extraordinary  diminution  in  the  size  of  the  flight 
feathers  and  that  of  the  pectoral  muscles  could  hardly  have 
been  the  result  of  human  selection  and  careful  breeding, 
as  the  value  of  the  birds  as  articles  of  food  is  considerably 
lessened  by  the  absence  of  flesh  on  the  breast.  Nor  is  the 
extreme  abundance  of  fluffy,  soft  body  feathers  a  character 
likely  to  be  desired  in  a  fowl.  The  vastly  increased  size  may 
have  been  a  matter  of  selection,  although,  as  the  inhabitants 
of  Shanghai  feed  their  poultry  but  scantily,  and,  according 
to  Mr.  Fortune,  mainly  on  paddy  of  unhusked  rice,  it  is  not 
easy  to  see  how  the  size  of  the  breed  was  obtained  if,  as  is 
generally  surmised,  it  arose  from  the  little  jungle  fowl. 

"Taking  all  these  facts  into  consideration,  I  am  induced 
to  believe  that  the  birds  of  the  Cochin  type  did  not  descend 
from  the  same  species  as  our  game  fowl. ' ' 

Mr.  Edward  Brown  expresses  his  opinion  as  follows: 

"To  sum  up,  therefore,  it  may  be  taken  that  with  the 
domestic  fowl,  as  with  many  other  natural  forms  of  life,  we 
can  go  so  far  back,  but  no  further.  The  probability  is  that,  as 
in  the  case  of  dogs,  all  the  varieties  of  fowls  do  not  owe  their 
origin  to  any  one  species,  at  any  rate  of  those  now  extant, 
and  that  we  must  look  to  another  progenitor  than  the  G.  fer- 
rugineus  for  several  of  the  later  introduced  races,  more  es- 
pecially those  from  China. " 

Such,  briefly  stated,  is  the  argument,  pro  and  con,  as  to  the 
common  origin  of  the  domestic  fowl.  It  may  be  enough  for 
us  to  know  that  we  have  the  chicken  that  lays  the  eggs  and 
feeds  the  world.  In  the  jungles  of  farther  India  a  wild 
fowl  is  scratching  and  cackling  to-day  as  its  ancestors  did 


HISTORICAL  ASPECT  9 

three  thousand  years  ago.  It  breeds  pure  without  any  stan- 
dard of  excellence,  and  lays  the  same  number  of  eggs  as  its 
ancestor  did  before  the  Christian  era.  It  crows  at  the  mid- 
night hour,  but  it  shuns  the  society  of  man.  It  is  pure-bred 
because  it  has  the  same  characteristics  as  a  thousand  ances- 
tors have  had.  While  it  revels  in  the  jungle  and  abhors  the 
sight  of  man  it  has  millions  of  relatives  living  useful  lives, 
ministering  to  the  wants  of  man,  and  on  two  continents  pro- 
ducing yearly  a  billion  dollars  worth  of  poultry  food-pro- 
ducts, just  because  away  back  three  thousand  years  ago  a 
few  of  its  ancestors  were  caught  and  robbed  of  the  freedom 
of  the  jungle.  What  a  triumph  domestication  of  the  fowl 
has  been !  What  a  mint  of  money  it  has  coined  since  it  gave 
up  its  freedom  in  the  wild  and  became  a  part  of  civilization. 

Antiquity  of  Domestic  Fowl. — Let  us  now  consider  brief- 
ly the  antiquity  of  the  fowl.  It  is  not  possible  to  give  dates ; 
it  is  not  even  possible  to  give  the  century  when  the  fowl  was 
domesticated.  It  is  known  from  New  Testiment  scripture 
that  cocks  and  hens  existed  two  thousand  years  ago.  There 
is  no  reference  to  them  in  the  Old  Testament ;  but  we  find 
the  egg  spoken  of  by  Job  in  these  words :  "  Is  there  any  taste 
in  the  white  of  an  egg  ? "  As  to  the  kind  of  egg  we  are  left  in 
doubt.  That  fowls  were  under  domestication  two  thousand 
years  ago  there  is  no  doubt ;  that  they  existed  several  hun- 
dred years  before  that,  there  is  authentic  proof ;  how  much 
longer  must  remain  largely  a  matter  of  conjecture. 

In  tracing  the  antiquity  of  the  hen,  the  following  facts 
have  been  mentioned:  When  Peter  denied  the  Savior  the 
cock  crowed  thrice.  That  establishes  the  origin  of  the  fowl 
before  the  Christian  era.  Mention  is  made  of  cock-fighting 
in  the  Codes  of  Mann,  a  thousand  years  or  more  before 
Christ.  A  Chinese  encyclopedia,  1400  years  B.C.,  mentions 
the  fowl.  In  the  religion  of  Zoroaster  the  cock  figures  as  a 
sacred  bird.  Figures  on  Babylonian  cylinders  show  that 


10  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

there  must  have  been  fowls  in  the  seventh  century  B.C. 
Homer  makes  no  mention  of  fowls,  900  B.C.,  but  they  are 
referred  to  in  the  writings  of  Theognis  and  Aristophanes 
about  500  B.C.  The  ancient  Egyptian  monuments  are  silent 
about  the  fowl,  though  flocks  of  tame  geese  are  shown. 


CHAPTER   II 
EVOLUTION   OF   MODERN    FOWL 

By  what  process,  then,  has  the  small  jungle  fowl,  pro- 
ducing little  meat  and  few  eggs,  been  converted  into  the 
Brahma  and  the  Leghorn  of  great  meat-  and  egg-producing 
qualities  ?  What  brought  about  the  change  in  the  fowl  that 
enables  the  poultryman  of  to-day  to  gather  ten  dozen  eggs 
a  year  instead  of  one  dozen  or  a  dozen  and  a  half,  which  was 
the  order  of  the  hen-day  at  the  birth  of  chicken  civilization  ? 
By  what  miracle  has  the  meat  on  the  fowl's  skeleton  been 
multiplied  six  times  ?  Whence  have  come  the  various  colors 
of  feather,  the  top-knot,  the  feather  legs,  and  tails  20  feet 
long? 

There  has  been  abundant  opportunity  in  some  three  thou- 
sand years  for  the  type  and  characteristics  of  the  jungle 
fowl  to  be  largely  lost  in  the  evolution  of  newer  and  better 
races  of  fowls.  If  the  modern  horse  is  descended  from  an 
animal  not  much  larger  than  a  Jack  rabbit,  why  not  a  Brah- 
ma from  a  Bantam-sized  fowl  ?  We  must  disabuse  our  minds 
of  the  idea  that  poultry-keeping  is  a  modern  institution. 
It  is  idle  to  repeat  that  the  fowl  we  see  to-day  on  the  farms 
and  in  the  backyards  are  the  product  of  the  past  fifty  or 
even  hundred  years.  It  has  taken  hundreds  or  thousands 
of  years  to  bring  them  to  the  stage  of  perfection  that  we  now 
have  them.  Harrison  Weir  in  '  *  The  Poultry  Book' '  says  on 
this  point :  ' '  Nearly  all  our  modern  methods  are  only  the 
old  ones  re-substituted,  even  that  of  the  incubator.  In  the 
olden  time  they  kept  fowls  and  bred  chickens  with  a  greater 
certainty  and  in  better  health  than  many  of  the  now  profes- 

11 


12     POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

sed  poultrymen  of  the  day."  Columela  two  thousand  years 
ago  described  the  fowl,  and  less  than  a  hundred  years  ago 
the  description  of  the  farm  fowl  of  England  corresponded 
in  nearly  every  respect  to  those  described  by  Columela. 

Darwin  says  that  "not  only  careful  breeding  but  actual 
selection  was  practiced  during  ancient  periods  and  by  bare- 
ly civilized  races  of  men. "  It  is  pointed  out  that  in  early 
times  there  were  different  breeds  of  fowls.  Six  or  seven  are 
mentioned  as  being  kept  by  the  Romans  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Christian  era.  As  proof  that  the  work  of  selec- 
tion has  not  all  been  confined  to  civilized  people,  it  is  shown 
that  the  semi-barbarous  people  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
about  fifty  years  ago  had  no  less  than  nine  varieties  of  the 
game  fowl.  In  the  fifteenth  century  several  breeds  were 
known  in  Europe,  and  in  China  about  the  same  period  seven 
kinds  were  named.  Finally,  Darwin  says:  "Will  it  then  be 
pretended  that  those  persons  who  in  ancient  times  and  in 
semi-civilized  countries  took  pains  to  keep  breeds  distinct, 
and  who  therefore  valued  them,  would  not  occasionally  have 
destroyed  inferior  birds  and  occasionally  have  preserved 
their  best  birds  ?  That  is  all  that  is  required. ' ' 

The  work  of  modern  times  has  not  been  so  much  to  main- 
tain the  original  purity  of  races  as  it  has  been  to  make  new 
breeds  and  varieties  by  fusing  pure  ancient  races,  to  what 
purpose  will  be  discussed  in  a  later  chapter.  Present-day 
poultry  breeders  and  livestock  breeders  breed  for  unifor- 
mity. Their  skill  is  exercised  in  producing  uniformity  in 
the  stock.  A  standard  of  excellence  is  set  up,  and  the  nearer 
their  fowls  or  animals  approach  that  standard  the  greater 
value  they  have  in  the  market  for  breeding  purposes.  The 
poultry  shows  demand  a  certain  standard,  and  this  calls 
for  uniformity.  But  uniformity  does  not  permit  of  im- 
provement or  progress.  It  is  clear  that  if  two  thousand 
years  ago  a  standard  of  excellence  corresponding  to  the  type 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  FOWL          13 

of  jungle  fowl  had  been  set  up,  there  would  have  been  no 
such  improvement  in  the  breeds  as  we  have  to-day.  The  im- 
provement did  not  come  from  breeding  to  a  standard  of  uni- 
formity. The  improvement  came  about  rather  by  variation. 

There  can  be  no  improvement  without  variation.  In  other 
words,  if  like  always  followed  like,  improvement  would  be 
impossible.  "Like  begets  like"  is  not  literally  true,  a  fact 
for  which  some  of  us  humans  may  have  regrets ;  but  on  the 
whole  the  human  race  has  improved  in  many  particulars 
since  the  days  of  our  barbarous  ancestors,  largely  because  of 
this  great  law  of  heredity,  the  tendency  to  vary.  The  excep- 
tional individual  appears  in  the  flock — an  exceptional  bird 
from  average  birds — and  this  is  called  variation.  A  large 
bird  from  small  parents  may  breed  a  strain  or  variety  of 
large  fowls.  A  small  bird  from  large  parents  may  breed 
a  variety  of  small  birds.  All  plants  and  animals  vary,  and 
it  is  in  taking  advantage  of  this  factor  that  our  fowls  in  two 
or  three  thousand  years  have  been  bred  up  to  a  higher  util- 
ity ;  or  rather,  it  is  one  of  the  most  potent  factors.  Fowls 
may  be  induced  to  vary  in  different  ways.  Changes  in 
climatic  conditions ;  changes  in  food  and  care,  and  crossing 
of  different  breeds,  all  have  an  influence  toward  greater 
variation.  Pedigree  or  ancestry  is  a  valuable  asset,  but  some- 
times the  law  of  variation  breaks  into  the  preserve  and 
takes  captive  this  asset  and  gives  us  something  more  valu- 
able. The  old  law  of  breeding  was  that  pedigree  was  every- 
thing, and  if  a  phenomenal  individual  should  appear,  he 
would  quickly  disappear,  his  offspring  would  be  reduced  to 
the  general  average.  The  new  Mendelian  view  is  that  the 
phenomenal  individual  may  breed  pure ;  that  he  may  defy 
his  pedigree  and  ancestry  and  breed  a  superior  race. 

Selection. — Variation  is  effective  through  selection. 
Variation  is  responsible  for  the  exceptional  individual; 
selection  is  responsible  for  preserving  it.  Darwin  says  there 


14  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

are  two  kinds  of  selection,  one  he  calls  "  unconscious, "  the 
other  "methodical."  To  the  former  he  credits,  in  large 
part,  the  evolution  of  the  fowl.  The  fancier  who  in  spirit  of 
rivalry  tries  to  excel  his  neighbor  by  breeding  from  his  best 
bird,  without  any  attempt  to  establish  a  new  breed  or  to 
preserve  some  new  characteristic,  or  improve  the  breed,  is 
practicing  unconscious  selection.  There  has  always  been  a 
standard  of  excellence,  written  or  unwritten,  and  fanciers 
or  poultry  breeders  have  been  unconsciously  following  it 
throughout  the  centuries.  Methodical  selection,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  to  do  with  the  making  of  breeds  and  the  fixing  of 
new  and  desirable  characteristics.  This  pre-supposes  a 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  breeder  of  the  principles  of 
breeding.  According  to  Darwin,  unconscious  selection  has 
done  more  for  the  improvement  of  fowls  because  it  has  been 
at  work  longer  than  methodical  selection. 

The  breeder  who  follows  methodical  selection  is  constant- 
ly on  the  lookout  for  new  and  valuable  characteristics.  He 
is  not  satisfied  with  following  a  standard  of  excellence ;  he 
sets  up  a  new  and  higher  standard ;  he  believes  in  progress. 
While  the  man  who  is  content  to  beat  his  neighbor  in  the  show 
room  and  discards  everything  in  his  breeding  pen  that  does 
not  conform  to  the  standard  set  up  for  prize-winners,  the 
man  who  follows  methodical  selection  would  often  achieve 
his  highest  purpose  by  breeding  for  characteristics  or  type 
that  would  have  no  standing  in  the  show  room.  He  is  look- 
ing for ' i  sports  "  or  "  mutants ' '  along  certain  lines  and  when 
they  appear  he  makes  them  the  basis  of  his  breeding  opera- 
tions. 

"Whether  the  improvement  or  evolution  of  the  fowl  is  due 
more  to  one  or  the  other  method  of  selection,  it  would  have 
been  clearly  impossible  to  evolve  the  fowl  as  we  now  have 
it  if,  in  the  early  centuries,  an  arbitrary  standard  had  been 
set  up  and  all  breeding  made  to  follow  along  that  line. 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  FOWL         15 

Causes  of  Variation. — A  more  abundant  food  supply 
undoubtedly  accounts  for  many  of  the  differences  between 
the  wi]d  fowl  and  the  modern  tame  fowl.  The  wild  fowl 
varies  little.  It  breeds  true  century  after  century,  but 
under  domestication  it  rapidly  evolves  new  characteristics. 
Egg  production  depends  upon  a  steady  supply  of  good  food. 
This  would  not  be  secured  in  the  wild  state.  The  effect  of 
domestication  has  been  at  once  to  increase  fecundity.  The 
wild  fowl  laid  a  dozen  or  possibly  two  dozen  eggs  in  a  year ; 
the  tame  fowl  now  lays  ten  times  as  many.  A  change  of 
climate  and  a  change  of  soil  induce  variation  and  increase 
vigor,  and  these  have  been  potent  factors,  doubtless,  in  in- 
creased egg  production.  An  abundant  food  supply  operates 
in  the  same  direction.  Higher  production  came  immediately 
into  play  when  the  fowl  was  put  under  conditions  more  con- 
genial to  egg  production. 

It  is  known  that  the  wild  pheasant  under  confinement 
produces  twice  the  number  of  eggs  that  she  produces  in  the 
wild  state.  Mr.  Simpson  of  the  Oregon  State  Game  Farm 
gets  an  average  of  about  sixty  eggs  a  year  from  his  China 
pheasants,  and  he  has  known  them  to  lay  a  hundred,  while 
in  nature  they  lay  but  two  sittings  of  about  13  eggs  each. 
Another  pheasant  raiser  is  reported  in  United  States  Far- 
mers Bulletin  390  as  stating  that  seven  of  his  hens  laid  131 
eggs  and  then  stopped,  but  when  he  put  them  into  a  fresh 
pen  they  laid  174  more. 

A  change  therefore  to  congenial  surroundings  or  environ- 
ment at  once  gives  a  decided  increase  in  production.  It 
would  seem  that  a  large  part  of  the  increased  productive- 
ness is  due  not  so  much  to  selection  but  to  improved  en- 
vironment. If  we  are  to  accept  the  United  States  census 
figures  of  about  80  eggs  a  year  as  the  average  production 
of  the  hens  of  the  United  States,  it  is  no  more  of  an  increase 
over  the  jungle  fowl's  production  than  might  reasonably 
be  expected  from  better  environmental  conditions. 


16     POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Effect  of  Food  and  Climate  on  Size  and  Meat  Quali- 
ties.— An  abundant  supply  of  food,  changed  soil,  climate, 
and  other  conditions  relating  to  environment,  would  not 
only  increase  production  of  eggs,  but  would  tend  to  pro- 
duce variations  in  the  size  and  meat  qualities.  Abnormal 
characteristics,  sports  or  mutations,  would  frequently  result. 
Ancient  peoples  (poultry-keepers  in  other  centuries)  had 
no  interest  in  standards  of  uniformity,  and  they  would 
preserve  the  peculiar  or  abnormal  birds,  and  new  types 
would  be  evolved.  A  sport  might  be  produced  weighing  two 
or  three  times  more  than  the  common  fowl,  and  it  is  easily 
understood  that  a  fowl  of  that  size  would  be  carefully  pre- 
served. The  variations  would  extend  to  egg-laying.  The 
poultry-keeper  would  find  a  fowl  that  was  evidently  a  good 
layer ;  she  would  be  retained  and  her  eggs  would  be  hatched. 
This  kind  of  selection,  unconscious  selection,  works  by  cen- 
turies slowly  but  surely. 

The  ancients  were  not  influenced  by  prizes  and  high 
prices,  but  more  by  novelties,  and  it  is  easy  to  believe  that 
the  fowl  of  unusual  or  abnormal  appearance  was  carefully 
preserved.  So,  too,  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that  a  few 
out  of  many  must  have  paid  attention  to  productive  qual- 
ities, and  in  some  way — if  not  by  trapnests,  by  some  other 
method — picked  out  the  best  layers  and  bred  from  them. 
There  is  no  record,  so  far  as  known,  that  fowls  were  kept  to 
please  the  fancy  and  win  prizes  for  fancy  points,  and  if  they 
were  kept  mainly  or  wholly  for  their  economic  qualities, 
selection  must  have  been  based  on  the  idea  of  improving 
productive  qualities.  Whether  we  owe  most  to  the  Mutant — 
"the  occasional  appearance  of  abnormal  characters " — or 
to  the  slow  process  of  unconscious  selection — the  survival 
of  the  fittest — is  a  matter  of  speculation  rather  than  fact. 

Use  and  Disuse  of  Parts. — The  use  and  disuse  of  parts 
has  been  a  factor  in  the  evolution  of  the  fowl.  How  so? 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  FOWL         17 

The  blacksmith's  arm  is  a  striking  object  lesson  of  the  effect 
of  vigorous  use  of  a  part  of  the  body.  The  poultryman 
knows  that  exercise  hardens  the  muscles  of  the  chicken,  and 
when  a  tender  article  of  chicken  meat  is  desired,  the  fowls 
are  fattened  in  crates  or  small  pens  in  order  to  keep  them 
from  exercising.  Whether  the  qualities  of  tenderness  in  the 
meat  could  become  a  fixed  and  transmissible  characteristic 
may  be  open  to  debate ;  but  acquired  characteristics  some- 
times become  hereditary.  The  horse  was  originally  a  pacer ; 
trotting  is  an  acquired  characteristic.  Fowls  were  original- 
ly all  sitters,  but  certain  breeds  through  disuse  of  sitting  or 
hatching  have  acquired  the  characteristic  of  non-sitting, 
and  they  breed  true  to  that  characteristic. 

It  is  known  that  the  wing  of  the  tame  duck  has  diminished 
in  weight  in  proportion  to  size  of  body  and  legs  since  domes- 
tication, the  tame  duck  being  a  descendant  of  the  common 
wild  duck.  The  tame  duck  is  much  larger  in  limb  and  body 
than  its  wild  ancestor,  and  it  has  little  or  no  use  for  its  wings. 
By  use,  the  leg  bones  have  increased  in  size,  but  by  disuse 
the  wing  bones  have  rather  decreased.  Under  domestication, 
the  disproportion  between  strength  of  wing  and  ability  to 
fly,  has  become  so  great  that  a  duck  of  the  Pekin  type  would 
make  a  spectacle  of  itself  if  on  the  wide-open  prairie  by  the 
use  of  its  wings  it  sought  to  elude  the  pursuit  of  the  coyote. 

The  same  thing  is  true  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  breeds 
of  chickens.  The  weight  of  wing  bones  is  much  less  than 
those  of  the  wild  ancestor,  the  jungle  fowl,  in  proportion 
to  weight  of  leg  bones.  This  is  specially  true  of  the  heavier 
breeds,  since  the  Cochin  and  Brahma,  for  instance,  very 
seldom  use  their  wings. 

Crossing. — Probably  the  most  fruitful  source  of  varia- 
tion, and  therefore  evolution,  is  the  crossing  of  different 
breeds  or  varieties.  Before  methodical  selection  was  prac- 
ticed, little  consideration  would  be  given  to  keeping  breeds 


18  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

and  varieties  separate;  and  crossing  was  no  doubt  freely 
resorted  to.  Crossing  adds  to  size  and  vigor,  produces  varia- 
tions and  abnormalities,  restores  lost  or  latent  characteris- 
tics and  increases  fertility.  Our  present  types  and  races 
of  chickens  were  undoubtedly  evolved  in  part  from  cross- 
ing. 

Summary. — It  is  known,  therefore,  that  all  breed  im- 
provement is  founded  on  variation.  It  is  further  known 
that  variation  may  be  induced  by  certain  other  conditions 
or  factors.  A  change  from  one  climate  to  another  is  a  fruit- 
ful source  of  variation.  This  is  true  of  plants  as  well  as 
animals.  A  change  of  climate  often  gives  increased  vigor 
and  fertility.  Changes  in  climate  and  changes  in  food  have 
undoubtedly  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  evolution  of 
the  fowl.  Transplanted  to  a  cold  climate,  we  find  the  jungle 
type  of  three  pounds  has  evolved  into  the  twelve-pound  fowl, 
because  the  fleshy  fat  fowl  was  better  fitted  to  withstand 
the  cold.  On  the  contrary,  the  southern  climates  are  not 
favorable  to  the  heavy  fowl,  with  heavy  feathering  and 
abundant  fat,  and  as  a  consequence  there  was  gradually 
evolved  the  Leghorn  and  fowls  of  that  type. 

Again,  abundant  food  that  was  assured  with  domestica- 
tion, undoubtedly  exercised  a  potent  influence  in  determin- 
ing the  size  and  characteristics  of  the  fowl.  Plenty  of  food 
tends  to  increase  the  size ;  scanty  nutrition  results  in  small 
races.  Good  food  increases  fecundity. 

Crossing,  however,  is  probably  the  most  powerful  means 
of  variation.  Crossing  different  breeds  or  varieties  opens 
the  door  to  further  improvement,  and  to  other  breeds. 


CHAPTER   III 
MODERN  DEVELOPMENT   OF   INDUSTRY 

Poultry-keeping  had  its  birth,  as  has  been  seen,  when  the 
wild  fowl  of  the  jungle  chose  to  foresake  the  wild  way  and 
become  the  companion  of  men.  The  domestication  of  the 
fowl  and  the  beginning  of  poultry-keeping  has  been  of  tre- 
mendous importance  to  mankind.  Poultry  and  eggs  are 
more  highly  prized  than  any  other  form  of  animal  food. 
The  domesticated  fowls  are  now  producing  in  the  United 
States  over  $600,000,000  worth  of  eggs  and  poultry  annual- 
ly, and  the  combined  value  of  all  poultry  products  of  the 
different  nations  must  reach  a  total  of  several  billion  dollars 
a  year.  Add  to  this  the  fact  that  the  production  and  con- 
sumption of  eggs  and  poultry  are  rapidly  increasing,  and 
a  conception  may  be  formed  as  to  the  magnitude  of  the  fact 
of  domestication.  The  development  is  not  altogether  a 
modern  achievement.  Men  of  modern  times  seem  more 
concerned  in  exterminating  wild  game  and  animals  than 
in  preserving  or  domesticating  them,  and  only  the  strong 
arm  of  the  law  has  saved  from  utter  annihilation  many 
species  of  wild  fowl. 

Great  as  have  been  the  achievements  in  the  poultry  realm 
under  domestication,  only  within  comparatively  recent 
times  has  keeping  poultry  come  to  be  recognized  as  an  in- 
dustry. Fifty  years  ago  there  was  little  or  no  poultry  litera- 
ture. The  first  enduring  poultry  journal  was  published  in 
1872  by  H.  H.  Stoddard.  Now  poultry  books  are  numbered 
by  the  score,  and  of  poultry  journals  there  are  now  half  a 
hundred  in  the  United  States  devoted  exclusively  to  this 

19 


20  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

industry,  not  to  mention  the  mass  of  poultry  literature  pub- 
lished by  the  various  farm  journals  as  well  as  newspapers. 

The  first  reference  to  poultry  in  the  publications  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  is  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the 
Patent  Office  for  1845.  The  first  bulletin  or  entire  publica- 
tion on  this  subject  issued  by  the  Department  was  Bulletin 
41— "Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens."  Up  to  July,  1911, 
41  publications  devoted  entirely  to  poultry,  and  containing 
1,696  pages,  were  published  by  the  Department.  The  Maine 
Station  Report  for  1887  was  probably  the  first  to  report 
poultry  work.  The  New  York  Geneva  Station,  Bulletin  29, 
1891,  was  the  first  bulletin  to  report  experiments  with  fowls. 

It  was  in  1880  that  poultry-keeping  assumed  sufficient 
importance  to  be  included  in  a  census  of  farm  products  by 
the  federal  government.  Now  practically  every  agricultural 
college  and  experiment  station  either  has  an  organized  poul- 
try department  or  is  giving  instruction  and  conducting 
experiments  with  poultry  in  connection  with  other  depart- 
ments. 

Notwithstanding  all  this  recent  work  in  poultry  husban- 
dry, history  is  strangely  silent  about  the  improvement  of 
the  hen  or  the  development  of  the  poultry  industry,  in 
which  she  is  the  most  significant  factor.  Moving  picture 
films  came  too  late  to  tell  her  history.  The  word  ' '  fowl ' '  or 
"cock"  or  "hen"  is  mentioned  in  books  here  and  there 
throughout  the  centuries.  As  civilization  advanced  and 
books  became  more  plentiful,  more  extended  references  are 
found,  showing  that  the  fowl  was  gradually  coming  into  her 
own,  becoming  a  factor  of  importance  to  civilized  man. 

Though  there  is  no  written  history  of  the  poultry  industry 
until  recent  times,  yet  throughout  the  centuries  the  hen  has 
been  the  companion  of  man,  developing  new  characteristics, 
changing  the  color  and  pattern  of  her  dress,  adding  to  or 
subtracting  from  her  weight,  improving  her  economic  quali- 


MODERN  DEVELOPMENT  OF   INDUSTRY  21 

ties — all  without  a  printing  press,  an  experiment  station,  or 
a  poultry  show.  The  real  history  of  the  fowl  preceded  the 
poultry  show  and  the  poultry  book.  The  improvement  of  the 
fowl  was  not  all  a  matter  of  modern  times.  A  century  ago 
there  existed  all  the  sizes,  large  and  small,  that  we  have  to- 
day, and  if  we  are  to  believe  some  writers,  economic  qual- 
ities were  as  highly  developed  then  as  now.  About  seven 
hundred  years  ago  eggs  were  so  plentiful  in  Europe  that 
they  sold  at  the  rate  of  50  for  one-quarter  cent.  At  that 
time  Charlemagne  kept  fowls  on  his  "model"  farms,  and 
he  himself  prescribed  methods  of  management  of  the  fowls. 
The  thirty-years  war  destroyed  the  poultry  industry,  as  it 
did  other  industries;  and  there  are  those  who  maintain 
that  at  that  time  the  secret  of  selecting  the  productive  hen 
was  lost  and  has  never  been  recovered.  Be  that  as  it  may, 
the  care  that  was  evidently  given  the  fowls,  and  the  cheap- 
ness of  the  eggs,  might  indicate  that  the  fowls  were  very 
productive. 

As  an  industry,  the  public  is  interested  only  in  the  econo- 
mic aspect  of  poultry-keeping.  The  great  increase  in  pro- 
duction has  already  beei*  noted.  This  increase  is  probably 
without  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  food  production.  What 
factors  have  been  responsible  for  this  increase  ?  First,  the 
increase  must  be  ascribed  largely  to  natural  causes.  With 
the  increase  in  the  percentage  of  the  population  that  live  in 
cities  there  has  been  a  relatively  greater  consumption  of  eggs 
than  of  meat.  There  has  been  a  greater  call  for  a  lighter 
diet  than  when  the  larger  proportion  of  the  population 
lived  by  toil  or  muscular  labor.  It  can  hardly  be  said  that 
the  increased  price  of  meats  has  driven  the  people  to  eggs 
as  a  substitute,  for  the  price  of  eggs  twenty  years  ago  was  as 
low  as  6  and  8  cents  a  dozen  in  different  sections  of  the  coun- 
try, and  yet  the  consumption  of  eggs  per  capita  was  less 
than  it  is  now.  With  greater  riches  and  higher  compensa- 


•22  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

tion,  the  customers  have  turned  more  to  eggs  than  to  some 
other  staple  foods. 

Second,  a  better  knowledge  of  the  high  nutritive  quality 
of  the  egg  and  of  the  fact  that  it  cannot  be  adulterated — 
that  it  comes  to  the  table  in  its  original  unbroken  package, 
guaranteeing  its  purity — has  also  contributed  to  its  in- 
creased use. 

Third,  cold  storage,  which  is  discussed  in  a  later  chapter, 
has  also  been  a  powerful  factor  in  the  increased  use  of  eggs. 

All  this,  by  opening  up  larger  markets  for  poultry  pro- 
ducts, has  contributed  to  increased  production,  for  without 
profitable  markets  no  artificial  stimulus  could  maintain  in- 
creased production. 

Education. — On  the  other  hand,  what  may  be  called  arti- 
ficial stimulus  was  necessary.  The  demand  for  eggs  would 
not  have  been  fully  met  had  education  or  artificial  means  not 
been  resorted  to  in  order  to  stimulate  production.  Under 
this  head  may  be  mentioned  the  agricultural  and  poultry 
journals.  These  journals  have  constituted  a  medium  for  an 
exchange  of  views  by  producers.  Experiences  have  been 
published  and  re-published,  and  they  have  shown  that  there 
is  money  in  producing  eggs.  Successes  have  been  chronicled, 
and  this  has  been  followed  by  explanations  of  methods.  In 
this  way  a  great  educational  campaign  has  been  going 
on  through  the  medium  of  the  agricultural  and  poultry 
journals. 

The  poultry  page  of  the  farm  paper  chronicling  the  poul- 
try experience  of  successful  farmers  throughout  the  country, 
read  by  thousands  of  farmers  weekly,  has  been  a  great  force 
in  directing  attention  to  this  industry  and  encouraging  it 
among  the  farmers.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  other  page  of  the 
farm  paper  has  a  larger  circle  of  readers  than  the  poultry 
page.  The  journals  devoted  exclusively  to  poultry,  though 
they  do  not  reach  as  large  a  constituency  as  the  farm  papers, 


MODERN  DEVELOPMENT  OF  INDUSTRY  23 

have  exercised  great  influence  for  better  poultry.  They 
have  appealed  more  to  the  special  poultry  keeper  than  to  the 
farmer,  yet  they  have  led  iii  the  dissemination  of  information 
along  special  lines,  and  thousands  of  readers  have  been  kept 
informed  by  the  poultry  papers  as  to  the  progress  being 
made  in  the  industry.  "While  making  special  appeals  to  the 
fancier  or  breeder  of  standard-bred  poultry,  these  publica- 
tions have  paid  more  or  less  attention  to  the  productive  side 
of  the  industry,  and  they  show  a  growing  tendency  to  em- 
phasize this.  The  general  newspapers,  both  dailies  and 
weeklies,  are  devoting  an  increasing  amount  of  space  to  the 
campaign  of  poultry  education. 

The  poultry  show  has  also  been  an  important  factor  in 
this  development.  It  has  afforded  an  opportunity  for  a 
study  of  breeds  and  external  characteristics,  and  created  an 
interest  in  the  industry ;  this,  too,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  poultry  show  has  been  notoriously  weighted  down  by 
standards  of  judging  that  in  some  respects  handicap  rather 
than  encourage  practical  poultry  breeding. 

Though  coming  into  the  field  late,  the  experiment  station 
and  the  agricultural  college  have  been  rendering  valuable 
assistance  through  state  and  federal  aid.  The  results  of 
investigations  during  the  past  fifteen  years  have  been  of  dis- 
tinct service  to  the  industry ;  so  has  the  work  of  the  college  in 
the  teaching  of  students,  and  in  institute  work  or  extension 
work.  The  demonstration  trains,  in  which  the  railroads  co- 
operated with  the  colleges,  have  been  the  most  successful 
agency  in  getting  the  information  directly  to  the  people 
interested.  Moving  picture  films,  industrial  poultry  con- 
tests among  the  school  children  and  laying  contests,  are  other 
agencies  that  are  helping  in  the  work  of  poultry  develop- 
ment. 


CHAPTER   IV 
CLASSIFICATION    OF    BREEDS 

Breeds  and  varieties  of  fowls  will  be  discussed  here  brief- 
ly from  a  utility  standpoint.  Before  the  days  of  the  poul- 
try shows  and  poultry  books  there  were  different  races  and 
breeds  of  fowls.  There  were  the  Mediterranean  or 
Italian  fowls,  which  were  small  of  size,  light  feather- 
ing, active  and  nervous ;  and  there  were  the  Asiatics  which 
were  large,  fleshy,  heavily  feathered  and  slow.  These 
characteristics  had  been  fixed  before  the  business  of  breed 
making  by  the  modern  fancier  had  begun.  The  original 
Cochin  weight  has  not  been  set  any  higher,  and  the 
minimum  weight  of  the  Italians  has  not  been  reduced. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  conceive  of  any  reason  why  there 
should  be  heavier  breeds  than  the  Cochin  or  Brahma,  or 
lighter  ones  than  the  Leghorn,  and  yet  if  prizes  were  of- 
fered in  poultry  shows,  or  other  rewards  given  for  the  larg- 
est fowls,  it  is  without  question  that  there  would  in  time  be 
evolved  breeds  of  fowls  of  much  greater  weight. 

From  the  jungle  fowl,  as  we  have  seen,  were  evolved 
through  the  centuries  the  Asiatics  of  large  size,  and  the 
Mediterraneans  of  small  size.  From  these  two  pure  races 
a  hundred  different  breeds  and  varieties  have  arisen  within 
less  than  a  century.  "The  American  Standard  of  Perfec- 
tion" recognizes  121  breeds  and  varieties  ranging  in  size 
from  12  pounds,  to  about  three  pounds,  not  counting  the 
Bantams. 

Standard  Classification. — "The  Standard  of  Perfection" 
classifies  fowls  according  to  external  points  of  size,  shape 
and  color.  It  divides  them  into  classes,  breeds,  and  vari- 
eties. The  class  refers  to  the  place  of  origin,  the  breed  mainly 

24 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   BREEDS 


25 


to  size  and  shape,  and  the  variety  to  color  within  the  breed. 
A  full  description  of  each  breed  and  variety  is  given  in  an 
illustrated  book  called  the  "Standard  of  Perf ection. ' '  This 
gives  all  the  various  exhibition  points  which  go  to  make  up 
the  perfect  specimen  from  the  standpoint  of  the  "Stan- 
dard." 

STANDARD    CLASSIFICATION 

Class  Breed  Variety 

American    Plymouth  Rock  ..Barred,    white,    buff,    silver 

pencilled,    partridge,    and 
Columbian. 

Wyandotte    Silver,   golden,    white,    buff, 

black,      partridge,     silver 
pencilled,  and  Columbian. 

Java Black  and  mottled. 

Dominique Rose  comb. 

Rhode  Island  Red .  Single  comb  and  rose  comb. 

Buckeye Pea  comb. 

Asiatic Brahma Light  and  dark. 

Cochin Buff,    partridge,   white,   and 

black. 

Langshan Black  and  white. 

Mediterranean  .  .Leghorn Single-comb  brown,  rose- 
comb  brown,  single-comb 
white  rose-comb  white, 
single-comb  buff,  r  o  s  e- 
comb  buff,  single-comb 
black,  and  silver. 

Minorca Single-comb  black,  rose- 
comb  black,  and  single- 
comb  white. 

Spanish White-faced  black. 

Blue  Andalusian  . 

Ancona    

English Dorking White,  silver  grey,  and  col- 
ored. 

Redcap Rose  comb. 

Orpington Single-comb  buff,  single- 
comb  black,  and  single- 
comb  white. 


26  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

Class  Breed  Variety 

Polish    Polish White-crested  black,  bearded 

golden,  bearded  silver, 
bearded  white,  buff  laced, 
non-bearded  golden,  non- 
bearded  silver,  and  non- 
bearded  white. 

Hamburg Hamburg Golden       spangled,       silver 

spangled,  golden  pencilled, 
silver*  pencilled,  white,  and 
black. 

French Houdan Mottled. 

Crevecoeur Black. 

La  Fleche Black. 

Game  and  Black-breasted*  red,    brown- 
Game  Bantam  .  Game red,  golden  duckwing,  sil- 
ver duckwing,  birchen,  red 
pyle,  white,  and  black. 

Game  Bantam  ....  Black-breasted  red,  browri- 
red,  golden  duckwing,  sil- 
ver duckwing,  birchen,  red 
pyle,  white,  and  black. 

Oriental  Cornish    Dark,  white,  and  white-laced 

reds. 

Sumatra    Black. 

Malay Black-breasted  red. 

Malay  Bantam  . . .  Black-breasted  red. 
Oriental 

Bantam Sebright Golden  and  silver. 

Rose  comb White  and  black. 

Botted   White. 

Brahma Light  and  dark. 

Cochin Buff,   partridge,  white,   and 

black. 

Japanese Black-tailed,  white  and  black. 

Polish Bearded    white,     buff-laced, 

and  non-bearded. 

Miscellaneous  . . .  Silkie White. 

Sultan   White. 

Frizzle Any  color. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  BREEDS  27 

Economic  Qualities  of  Breeds. — It  is  difficult  to  classify 
breeds  and  varieties  of  fowls  by  their  utility  or  economic 
qualities.  When  it  comes  to  practical  qualities  it  should 
be  understood  that  no  hard  and  fast  classification  can  be 
given,  because  so  far  as  egg  production  is  concerned  there 
is  no  known  type  or  shape  of  fowl  that  indicates  laying 
qualities  with  any  measure  of  certainty.  It  has  been  dem- 
onstrated that 'there  is  a  wide  range  in  productiveness  of 
fowls.  Individuals  'of  the  same  breed  vary  from  no  eggs 
to  as  many  as  three  hundred  in  a  year.  High  egg-laying  is 
not  a  fixed  breed  characteristic;  there  are  good  and  poor 
layers  in  all  breeds.  It  is  a  question  of  individuals  rather 
than  of  breeds. 

And  yet  it  may  be  conceded  that  high  egg  production  is 
more  often  found  in  fowls-  of  small  size  and  active  nervous 
temperament  than  in  larger,  less  active  kinds.  The  ability 
to  go  in  the  horse  is  usually  associated  with  high  energy 
and  spareness  of  flesh.  The  cow  that  does  things  in  milk 
production  is  spare  in  flesh,  small  in  bone,  and  nervous  in 
disposition.  The  little  Shetland  pony,  it  is  said,  produces 
power  cheaper  than  the  Clydesdale  or  Percheron  It  seems 
to  require  less  fuel  or  food  in  the  small  animal  to  produce 
a  given  result,  whether  the  result  be  milk,  eggs,  speed  or 
power,  than  in  the  large  animal.  As  the  size  is  increased 
the  cost  of  maintenance  is  increased.  The  large  fowl  is 
not  the  most  economical  producer  of  eggs.  Frequently 
the  large  fowl  will  lay  more  eggs  than  the  small  fowl. 

There  is  however,  a  relationship  between  size  of  fowl  and 
egg-laying.  But  it  cannot  be  said  that  high  egg-laying  is 
a  fixed  characteristic  of  any  breed,  or  that  there  is  any  type 
that  indicates  with  any  certainty  the  laying  qualities  of 
the  fowls  when  it  comes  to  a  question  of  selecting  the  good 
from  the  poor  in  any  flock  of  any  breed. 

The  system  of  trapnesting  has  shown  us  how  widely  in- 


28  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

dividuals  of  the  same  breed  and  same  type  vary.  There 
are  "star-boarders"  in  every  flock,  birds  that  live  on  the 
thrift  of  others,  possessing  all  the  apparent  external  char- 
acteristics of  their  breed,  but  lacking  the  ability  to  lay. 
Whatever  wonders  modern  breeders  may  have  accomplished 
in  the  making  of  new  breeds  they  have  not  given  us  a  clear 
definition  of  egg  type.  So  much  has  been  accomplished 
by  the  fancier  in  the  way  of  color  breeding  during  the 
past  fifty  years  that  one  is  led  to  wonder  what  might  have 
been  performed  if  breeders  had  as  persistently  and  intel- 
ligently bred  for  an  egg  type  as  they  have  for  color  types. 
Practical  Utility  Classification. — All  breeds  and  vari- 
eties of  fowls  may  be  grouped  in  four  classes:  1,  Egg 
Breeds.  2,  Meat  Breeds.  3,  General  Purpose  Breeds.  4, 
Fancy  Breeds. 

1.  Egg  Breeds. — The  most  noteworthy  characteristics 
of  the  egg  breeds  are :  Small  size,  active  and  nervous  tem- 
perament,  early  maturity,  non-broodiness,  good  foraging 
habits,  and  sensitiveness  to  cold.     The  principal  represen- 
tatives of  the  egg  breeds  are  Leghorn,  Minorca,  Spanish, 
Andalusian  and  Hamburg.     All  except  the  Hamburg,  be- 
long to  the  Mediterranean  class. 

2.  Meat  breeds. — Among    the    characteristics    of    the 
meat  breeds  may  be  mentioned  large  size,  gentleness  in  dis- 
position, slowness  in  movement,  poor  foraging  proclivities, 
as  a  rule  poor  laying  qualities,  late  maturity  and  persistent 
broodiness.      Brahmas,    Cochins,   and  Langshans   are   the 
principal  meat  breeds. 

3.  General-purpose  breeds. — These  are  of  medium  size, 
are  good  table  fowls,  fair  layers,  less  active  than  the  egg 
breeds,  but  more  so  than  the  meat  breeds,  and  are  good 
sitters  and  mothers.     Plymouth  Rocks,  "Wyandottes,  and 
Rhode  Island  Reds  belong  to  this  class. 

4.  Fancy  breeds. — Bantams  of  various  varieties ;  Polish 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   BREEDS  29 

and  Silkies  come  under  this  head,  and  are  raised  chiefly  for 
some  peculiarity  of  form  or  feather  without  regard  to  use- 
ful qualities.  This  class  will  be  eliminated  from  further 
discussion. 

This  classification,  however,  is  an  arbitrary  one.  Some 
breeders  may  object  to  the  place  given  some  of  the  breeds. 
It  may,  for  instance,  be  claimed  that  the  Langshan  is  as 
much  a  general  purpose  breed  as  the  Orpington,  and  it  may 
be  that  the  Orpington  is  a  better  meat  breed  than  the 
Langshan.  The  Orpington  has  a  slightly  greater  weight  than 
the  Langshan,  and  if  weight  alone  were  to  be  considered 
these  two  breeds  might  exchange  places.  In  making  the 
classification,  account  is  taken  of  the  fact  that  the  Lang- 
shan is  largely,  if  not  wholly,  of  Asiatic  origin,  while  in 
the  making  of  the  Orpington  several  egg  breeds  were  used. 
Again,  placing  the  Orpington  in  the  general  purpose  class 
does  not  mean  that  its  meat  qualities  are  not  equal  or 
superior  to  some  of  those  in  the  meat  class.  The  Dorking 
also,  might  fairly  be  placed  among  the  table  breeds  because 
its  table  qualities  have  probably  been  more  highly  de- 
veloped than  its  laying  qualities,  but  on  account  of  its 
medium  size  and  its  wide  reputation  as  a  general-purpose 
fowl  it  has  been  placed  in  the  general-purpose  class. 

The  classification  includes  only  those  breeds  and  varieties 
that  have  been  admitted  to  the  "American  Standard  of 
Perfection."  There  are  many  European  breeds  that  are 
not  illustrated  in  or  recognized  by  the  "American  Stan- 
dard.' Some  of  them  are  of  considerable  economic  value. 


CHAPTER  V 
ORIGIN   AND   DESCRIPTION   OF  BREEDS 

IMPORTANT    EGG    BREEDS 

The  Leghorn. — The  poultry  industry  owes  a  great  deal 
to  the  Leghorn  fowl.  It  is  not  a  made  breed,  as  breeds 
are  made  to-day ;  it  was  ' '  ready-made. ' '  "Where  the  breed 
originated  nobody  knows.  It  is  not  the  product  of  scien- 
tific breeding,  but  rather  its  type  and  characteristics  have 
been  developed  through  the  centuries  by  the  slow  process 
of  natural  or  unconscious  selection.  Nature  early  decreed 
that  the  high  producer,  whether  the  product  be  eggs  or 
milk  or  speed,  must  be  small  in  body,  spare  in  flesh,  and 
full  of  nervous  energy.  Nature  did  the  work  in  the  case 
of  the  Leghorn.  "While  the  Leghorn  is  a  ready-made  breed, 
our  modern  breeders  have  by  careful  selection  given  it 
greater  uniformity,  especially  in  color  of  plumage,  ear  lobe, 
etc.  The  development  of  different  varieties  has  been  the 
work  of  modern  fanciers.  Later  and  more  productive 
strains  have  been  developed,  but  the  Leghorn  of  to-day  is 
largely  the  Leghorn  in  type  and  characteristics  of  a  century 
or  two  ago.  Of  all  breeds  of  fowls,  few  have  the  apparent 
lasting  qualities  of  the  Leghorn.  While  the  Leghorn  is  a 
large  class  at  all  poultry  shows,  and  has  therefore  been 
bred  along  fancy  lines,  it  has  also  been  bred  for  special 
egg-laying  qualities.  The  White  Leghorn  has  the  distinc- 
tion of  being  found  on  special  poultry  farms  more  than 
any  other  breed. 

ORIGIN.- — The  Leghorn  is  sometimes  spoken  of!  as  an 
American  breed.  It  received  its  name  in  the  United  States, 

30 


ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS 


31 


but  the  fowl  came  from  Italy  and  derived  its  name  from 
the  city  of  Leghorn,  Italy.  In  Italy  and  other  European 
countries  it  goes  under  the  name  of  Italian  fowl.  As  a 
fancier's  fowl  it  may  fairly  be  said  to  be  an  American  pro- 
duction, its  finer  exhibition  points  being  put  on  by  Ameri- 
can breeders;  but  its  general  breed  characteristics  were 
developed  in  the  Mediterranean  country  before  the  fancier 
himself  was  developed  in  America.  In  Italy  not  so  much 
attention  has  been  given 
to  color,  Alfredo  Vi- 
tale,  of  Naples,  in  a 
letter  to  the  writer,  ex- 
presses the  opinion  that 
the  blacks  are  the  most 
productive  strain.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  Black- 
Red  Game  was  crossed 
with  the  Brown  Leg- 
horn to  improve  the 
color  of  plumage,  also 
that  the  Buff  Cochin 
blood  was  used  to  se- 
cure the  proper  buff  color  in  the  Buffs. 

There  is  little  difference  in  laying  in  different  varieties  of 
Leghorns.  A  mixture  of  Cochin  blood  in  the  Buffs  and 
Game  blood  in  the  Browns  may  have  had  an  influence  to- 
ward lower  egg  yield,  but  it  would  hardly  seem  probable 
that  the  effect  of  that  infusion  of  blood  from  less  pro- 
ductive breeds  would  still  remain.  It  was  ill-advised,  how- 
ever, to  jeopardize  well-known  laying  qualities  by  crossing 
with  meat  breeds  because  of  a  color  demand. 

The  Minorca. — Among  the  egg  breeds,  next  to  the  Leg- 
horn, the  Minorca  ranks  in  popularity.  Like  the  Leghorn, 
its  type  was  fixed  long  ago.  It  is  larger  in  size  than  the 


*  WHITE  LEGHORN  COCKEREL 
Exhibition  type. 


32 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


Leghorn  and  has  light  colored  skin  and  dark  shanks.  Its 
strong  point  is  that  it  lays  a  large  white  egg.  No  other 
breed  of  fowls  lays  an  egg  as  large  and  attractive  as  the 
Minorca.  In  markets  where  the  white  egg  is  preferred 
Minorca  eggs  should  command  the  highest  price.  The  Leg- 
horn excells  the  Minorca  in  number  of  eggs,  but  it  may  be 

possible  to  secure  a 
price  for  the  Minorca 
eggs  so  much  higher  as 
to  make  the  product  of 
the  latter  equal  that  of 
the  former  in  value. 
Minorca  eggs  frequently 
weigh  as  much  as  28 
ounces  a  dozen,  and  a 
good  average  would  be 
26  ounces.  Large  size 
of  egg  is  characteristic 
of  the  Spanish  breeds. 
Under  proper  condi- 
tions, the  Minorca  is  an 
excellent  breed  to  keep. 
In  the  southern  or 

warmer  sections  of  the  country  it  thrives,  but  its  excessively 
large  comb  and  wattles  make  it  hardly  desirable  for  the  cold 
sections.  "With  proper  shelter,  however,  it  will  do  well.  The 
Minorca  derives  its  name  from  the  Island  of  Minorca  off 
the  east  coast  of  Spain.  There  are  two  varieties,  Black 
and  "White.  ''The  Standard"  subdivides  the  Blacks  into 
single  and  rose  comb  varieties.  The  characteristics  of 
white  skin  and  dark  shanks  depreciate  their  value  somewhat 
in  American  markets. 

The  Ancona. — During  the  past  few  years  the  Anconas 
have   been    receiving   considerable   attention.     They  have 


BLACK  MINORCA  MALE 


ORIGIN   AND  DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS  33 

mottled  white  and  black  plumage.  This  fowl  is  undoubt- 
edly of  Italian  origin,  and  outside  of  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  color  it  is  pretty  much  a  Leghorn  in  type  and 
characteristics.  Compared  with  the  Leghorn  it  is  com- 
paratively rare;  in  this  country,  and  its  egg-producing 
qualities  have  not  been  so  well  demonstrated. 

The  Hamburg. — "The  American  Standard  of  Perfec- 
tion" classes  the  Hamburg  as  a  Dutch  breed,  while  Edward 
Brown  classes  it  among  the  British  races  of  fowls.  There 
are  six  varieties,  namely,  Golden  and  Silver  Spangled, 
Golden  and  Silver  Pencilled,  White  and  Black.  The  Ham- 
burgs  all  have  rose  combs.  They  lay  a  rather  small  egg, 
though  the  Blacks,  owing  probably  to  an  infusion  of 
Spanish  blood,  lay  a  fair  size  egg. 

The  Blue  Andalusian. — This  is  another  of  the  Spanish 
egg  breeds.  The  fowls  have  a  considerable  popularity  as 
egg  layers,  and  lay  an  egg  of  fair  size.  A  peculiarity  of 
this  breed  is  that  though  blue  is  the  recognized  color  the 
mating  of  two  blues  together  produces  offspring  that  are 
either  black  or  splashed  white.  In  mating  the  blacks  and 
whites  together  usually  blue  offspring  results. 

The  Black  Spanish. — This  was  a  very  popular  breed 
thirty  years  ago.  The  fowls  were  splendid  layers  of  a 
large  white  egg,  but  are  now  very  seldom  found  in  any 
section  of  the  country.  The  breed  has  fallen  the  victim  of 
a  too  general  tendency  for  fanciers  to  accentuate  in  their 
breeding  special  points  or  peculiarities.  In  this  case  the 
peculiarity  was  the  long  white  face;  breeders  engaged  in 
a  rivalry  to  increase  its  length.  This  was  encouraged  by 
the  " Standard "  which  says  of  the  white  face:  "The 
greater  the  extent  of  surface  the  better. "  The  Black 
Spanish  is  of  the  same  family  as  the  Minorca. 

The  Campine. — This  is  the  most  popular  egg  breed  in 
Belgium.  "We  give  a  description  of  two  Belgium  breeds 


34  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

for  the  reason  that  in  that  country,  as  might  be  expected 
from  the  character  of  the  people,  fancy  characteristics  have 
been  given  slight  consideration  in  the  breeding  of  fowls. 
The  frugality  and  thrift  of  the  Belgian  peasants  would 
lead  one  to  expect  that  they  would  exercise  great  care  in  the 
selection  of  breeding  fowls,  and  the  chances  are  that  these 
very  characteristics  make  them  more  skillful  in  selecting  the 
best  for  breeding.  This  breed  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  as 
the  Belgians  believe  strongly  in  the  egg  basket  the  seeking 
after  abnormalities  or  fancy  points  was  not  permitted  to 
deter  them  from  their  pursuit  of  the  egg-layer.  It  is  a  non- 
sitting  breed,  an  excellent  layer  of  white  eggs  of  good  size. 
In  size  it  is  about  the  same  as  the  Leghorn ;  it  has  dark  slate 
blue  legs  and  feet.  There  are  two  varieties,  the  Gold  and 
Silver. 

The  Braekel. — This  is  another  breed  that  has  been  bred 
a  long  time  in  certain  districts  of  Belgium.  Its  origin  is 
probably  the  same  as  that  of  the  Campine  and  any  differ- 
ences now  in  size  and  characteristics  are  probably  due  to 
differences  in  environment.  It  is  larger  than  the  Campine, 
females  weighing  from  4  to  6  pounds,  and  males  5  to  7 
pounds.  It  is  very  precocious.  One  writer  says:  "The 
chicken  is  no  sooner  out  of  the  shell  than  its  comb  is  de- 
veloped; at  three  weeks  the  cockerels  commence  to  crow; 
at  six  weeks  they  begin  to  drive  about  the  hens."  The 
Braekel,  it  is  stated,  is  as  much  developed  at  six  weeks  as 
some  other  breeds  at  about  six  months. 

The  Houdan. — In  France  more  attention  has  been  given 
to  developing  meat  qualities  in  fowls  than  laying  qualities. 
In  this  line  the  French  poultry  keepers  are  particularly 
apt.  Much  may  be  learned  from  the  poultry  raisers  of 
France  in  the  production  of  a  fine  quality  of  table  meat. 
Mr.  Edward  Brown  in  his  classification  of  fowls  places  only 
one  French  breed — the  Houdan — among  the  egg  breeds. 


ORIGIN   AND  DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS  35 

Even  the  Houdan  may  properly  belong  to  the  general  pur- 
pose class  on  account  of  its  weight  and  meat  qualities.  The 
weight  of  the  adult  female  is  6  pounds.  The  crest  is  more 
ornamental  than  useful  and  this  peculiarity' has  undoubt- 
edly had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  lack  of  appreciation 
shown  for  it  among  utility  poultry-keepers.  It  lays  a  white 
egg,  the  color  of  legs  is  pinky-white,  mottled  with  black. 

GENERAL  PURPOSE  BREEDS 

American  breed  makers  have  run  altogether  to  the  gen- 
eral purpose  type  of  fowl.  In  the  American  class  we  have 
the  Plymouth  Rock,  the  Wyandotte,  Java,  Dominique, 
Rhode  Island  Red,  Buckeye,  all  of  medium  size  and  of 
general  purpose  characteristics.  Out  of  those  six  breeds 
twenty  varieties  have  been  made,  there  being  of  the  Wyan- 
dotte alone  eight  different  varieties,  the  differences  in 
varieties  being  wholly  in  color.  It  is  true  that  American 
breeders  have  "made  over"  other  breeds  that  have  come 
from  foreign  countries  until  some  of  them  would  scarcely 
be  recognized  as  of  the  same  breed,  but  the  work  has  been 
chiefly  confined  to  fixing  external  points  of  color,  not  in 
altering  type. 

The  general-purpose  fowl  is  a  modern  innovation.  Be- 
fore the  days  of  the  modern  breeder  there  were  practically 
but  two  types  of  fowls — the  large,  slow,  fleshy  Asiatic,  and 
the  small  egg-laying  Italian.  The  modern  breeder  has  con- 
cerned himself  not  so  much  in  improving  these  two  types 
as  in  making  various  combinations  of  them.  Our  American 
breeds  are  therefore  the  result  of  crossing  the  two  pure 
races  mentioned.  The  poultry  industry  has  doubtless 
gained  from  the  making  of  these  varieties.  A  question 
naturally  arises  as  to  whether  it  would  not  have  been  better 
if  the  breeders  had  confined  themselves  to  improving  exist- 


36  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

ing  breeds  or  races  and  keeping  them  pure  rather  than  mix- 
ing them  and  making  new  breeds. 

If  it  be  true  that  crossing  improves  the  vigor  and  fer- 
tility of  the  offspring  and  saves  races  from  annihilation,  it 
may  readily  be  conceded  that  the  amalgamation  of  the  two 
races  for  the  purpose  of  making  new  breeds  has  been  al- 
together an  advantage.  If  it  be  denied  that  the  crossing  of 
pure  races  can  ever  be  beneficial  we  will  have  to  confess 
that  our  American  breeds  and  varieties  are  without  excuse 
of  origin.  It  is  certain  that  the  Italian  or  Leghorn  has  not 
been  replaced  by  a  better  laying  breed,  nor  has  there  been 
produced  a  breed  superior  to  the  Cochin  and  Brahma  as 
meat  breeds.  In  American  breeds  the  excessive  weight  of 
the  Cochin  and  Brahma  has  been  avoided  and  the  prefer- 
ence of  the  largest  proportion  of  consumers  for  a  medium 
size  table  fowl  has  influenced  American  breeders  in  the 
making  of  new  breeds,  to  the  undoubted  advantage  of  the 
industry  as  a  whole. 

When  we  speak  of  a  general-purpose  breed  reference  is 
made  to  meat  and  egg-laying  qualities.  In  other  words,  a 
general-purpose  fowl  is  a  fair  layer  and  a  fair  table  fowl, 
and  that  idea  has  been  kept  in  mind  by  the  originators  of 
the  Plymouth  Rock  and  other  breeds  of  that  type.  They 
wisely  eliminate  feathers  on  legs,  which  are  objectionable 
in  a  utility  fowl.  They  also  eliminated  some  of  the  natural 
wildness  of  the  Leghorn.  Breeders  have  been  somewhat 
hampered  by  the  demands  of  the  show  which  required  them 
to  select  for  various  other  points,  and  for  this  reason  our 
Plymouth  Rock  and  other  general-purpose  breeds  have  not 
been  bred  up  to  that  perfection  of  flesh  that  has  been  at- 
tained in  some  of  the  French  and  in  some  of  the  English 
breeds.  Undoubtedly  the  craze  for  fine  barring  in  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock  has  engaged  the  attention  of  many 
breeders  to  the  exclusion  of  points  demanded  in  a  good 


ORIGIN   AND  DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS  37 

table  fowl.  As  a  result  there  is  more  uniformity  in  the 
barring,  for  example,  than  in  the  proportion  of  edible  meat 
to  bone  in  the  Plymouth  Rock.  As  a  rule  the  Plymouth 
Rock  is  too  heavily  boned  for  a  fine  table  fowl. 

Another  objection  to  the  Plymouth  Rock  and  other  gen- 
eral-purpose breed  may  be  urged;  the  "Standard"  weight 
is  larger  than  is  demanded  by  the  great  body  of  consumers. 
The  general-purpose  fowl  should  fill  a  general  purpose 
demand.  ' '  The  Standard ' '  weight  for  the  Plymouth  Rock  is 
9~y2  pounds  for  the  cock  and  iy2  for  the  hen.  If  the  judge 
must  not  cut  for  over-size  they  are  placed  practically  in 
the  Asiatic  class  so  far  as  size  is  concerned.  And  as  the 
size  is  increased  the  breed  is  getting  that  much  away  from 
the  general  purpose  type.  Increasing  the  size  does  not 
necessarily  mean  better  meat  qualities. 

A  fowl  that  exceeds  7  or  8  pounds  in  weight  borders  too 
closely  on  the  Asiatic  or  meat  type  for  a  general-purpose 
fowl.  When  it  reaches  8  or  10  pounds  it  gets  into  a  special 
class  and  there  must  be  a  special  market  for  it.  The  de- 
mand is  limited  for  the  large  meat  type  of  fowl,  and  if  the 
poultry  raiser  is  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  largest 
body  of  consumers  he  must  breed  a  fowl  of  medium  size. 
It  would  be  an  economic  mistake  to  advocate  a  large  fowl 
of  Asiatic  type  for  the  general  farmer,  because  if  all  were 
to  adopt  that  type  it  would  mean  one  of  two  things:  The 
cutting  of  the  consumption  of  poultry  in  two,  or  cutting 
the  price  in  half.  There  is  a  greater  demand  for  a  fowl 
weighing  4  to  5  pounds  dressed  than  for  one  of  any  other 
size.  The  problem  then  for  the  breeders  of  a  general-pur- 
pose fowl  is  to  adhere  to  a  type  that  will  meet  the  largest 
consuming  demand,  and  then  develop  laying  qualities  on 
that  basis. 

Again,  breeders  of  the  Plymouth  Rock  might  render  a 
real  service  if  they  should  eliminate  the  tendency  of  the 


38  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

Plymouth  Rock  to  put  on  excessive  abdominal  fat.  How- 
ever, this  result  will  largely  be  secured  in  breeding  for 
eggs.  It  will  be  found  that  this  characteristic  is  usually 
absent  in  the  heavy  producer. 

In  our  American  breeds  many  of  the  Asiatic  character- 
istics are  retained.  In  some  respects  American  ideals  differ 
from  European.  We  get  the  brown  egg  from  the  Asiatics, 
but  this  is  one  of  the  accidents  of  choice,  for  American 
markets  generally  prefer  the  white  egg  shell.  On  the  other 
hand  we  get  the  yellow  leg  and  skin  from  the  same  source, 
the  color  preferred  in  the  markets.  In  England  and  other 
European  countries,  the  white  skin,  it  is  believed,  indicates 
superior  excellence  of  meat,  but  with  this  white  flesh  they 
get  something  they  don't  want — a  white  egg.  Here  are 
apparently  antagonistic  characteristics,  a  white  egg  and  a 
yellow  skin  in  general  purpose  breeds.  Whether  it  is 
possible  to  overcome  this  barrier  of  nature  remains  to  be 
demonstrated. 

Speaking  of  American  breeds,  Edward  Brown  pays  a 
high  compliment  and  at  the  same  time  extends  a  warning 
to  American  breeders  in  the  following  language:  "'That 
these  breeds  have  proved  most  valuable  additions  to  our 
stock  is  unquestionable,  and  their  wide  distribution  and 
universal  recognition  is  a  great  tribute  to  American  breed- 
ers, who  have  kept  prominently  forward  the  general 
economic  qualities  and  not  exaggerated  special  points  to  the 
extent  met  with  in  Great  Britain.  Whether  that  will  be 
so  in  the  future  remains  to  be  seen,  for  present  signs  are  in 
the  direction  of  an  exaltation  of  fancy  points,  which  would 
be  regrettable." 

If  we  are  to  judge  from  the  success  of  one  English 
breeder  in  American  laying  competitions,  the  warning  has 
been  better  heeded  in  England  than  in  America. 


ORIGIN  AND   DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS 


39 


The  Plymouth  Rocks. — There  are  five  varieties  of  Ply- 
mouth Rocks  recognized  by  the  "American  Standard  of 
Perfection";  namely,  the  Barred,  "White,  Buff,  Partridge, 
and  Columbian. 

The  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  is  the  great  American  farm 
fowl.  Its  popularity  among  farmers  exceeds  that  of  any 
other  one  breed.  The 
White  Eock,  the  Wyan- 
dotte  and  the  Rhode 
Island  Red  may  be  of 
equal  utility  value,  but 
the  Barred  Rock  has 
been  lo-^er  established, 
is  more  widely  known, 
and  its  qualities  of  meat 
and  egg  production,  and 
possibly  its  color,  have 
given  it  a  place  second 
to  none.  The  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock  was 
about  the  first  American 
production  in  the  poul- 
try world,  and  on  this 
account  it  no  doubt  se- 
cured a  popularity  that 
later  productions  did 
not.  To  the  fancier  fine  barring  in  the  Plymouth  Rock  rep- 
resents the  highest  achievement  in  breeding.  When  asso- 
ciated with  this  is  good  shape  and  carriage,  the  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock  is  a  most  attractive  fowl. 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  Plymouth  Rock,  several  Asiatic 
and  Mediterranean  breeds  are  represented  among  its  an- 
cestors. It  is  believed  that  the  first  or  original  cross  was 
a  mating  of  Dominique  male  and  Black  Java  or  Black 


BARRED   PLYMOUTH   ROCK 

COCKEREL 
First  prize  at  Los  Angeles  show. 


40 


POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


Cochin  hen.  The  Minorca,  Cochin  and  Brahma  are  all 
believed  to  have  been  used  in  making  the  breed.  Mr.  D.  A. 
Upham  and  Mr.  Joseph  Spaulding,  both  of  Connecticut, 
claim  the  honor  of  originating  the  Barred  Rock.  The 
former  exhibited  the  first  specimens  in  1869.  Close  breed- 
ing for  fine  barring  has  injured  some  strains  of  the  breed, 
but  its  wide  dissemination  has  averted  ruin.  A  peculiarity 

of  the  Barred  Rock  color 
is  that  the  male  off- 
spring are  lighter  than 
the  female.  The  ten- 
dency is  for  the  cock- 
erels to  be  lighter  than 
the  parents,  and  the 
pullets  darker.  The 
''Standard"  says  that 
show  specimens  must 
have  the  same  shade  of 
color,  male  and  female, 
and  this  has  led  fan- 
ciers to  follow  in  breed- 
ing what  is  called 
double  mating. 

Double  mating  means 
the  use  of  two  sepa- 
rate matings,  or  two 
separate  pens  of  fowls,  one  to  produce  males  of  proper 
exhibition  color,,  (the  other  females.  The  pen  producing 
the  cockerels  is  darker  in  color  than  the  pen  producing 
the  pullets. 

The  White  Plymouth  Rocks. — There  is  no  difference  in 
the  shape  and  size  of  the  different  varieties  of  Plymouth 
Rocks.  The  difference  is  in  color  only.  The  White  came 
as  a  sport,  or  what  might  be  called  a  "  mutant "  from  the 


BARRED  ROCK  HEN 

Showing   fine    barring.      (Courtesy    of 
Miller    Purvis.) 


ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF   BREEDS  41 

Barred  variety  about  1880.  The  White  is  fully  the  equal 
of  the  Barred  in  economic  qualities.  It  has  not  been  sub- 
jected to  the  same  degree'  of  intense  inbreeding  as  many 
strains  of  the  Barred  Rock  have  been  for  barring,  and  on 
that  account  there  may  be  excuse  for  the  claim  that  it  has 
better  maintained  its  original  utility  value.  However, 
there  are  strains  of  the  Barred  variety  that  by  good 
breeding  have  preserved  their  utility  value  to  a  high 
degree. 

The  Buff  Plymouth  Rock.— This  variety  of  Eock  is  an 
independent  creation.  It  is  not  related  to  the  Barred  or 
White  varieties,  but  breeders  have  so  moulded  it  and  shaped 
it  that  in  size  and  type  and  general  external  characteristics 
it  is  a  duplicate  of  the  others.  The  Buff  Leghorn,  Buff 
Cochin  and  Light  Brahma  were  used  in  producing  the  Buff 
Rock.  Some  strains,  it  is  claimed,  have  originated  from  the 
Rhode  Island  Red.  While  it  is  a  fowl  of  much  merit,  the 
Buff  Rock  is  not  a  popular  breed  on  the  general  farms,  or 
on  special  poultry  farms,  and  it  has  never  been  demon- 
strated that  it  has  any  useful  qualities  not  possessed  by  the 
Barred  or  White  variety.  From  an  economic  point  of  view 
there  can  be  little  excuse  for  the  Buff  variety. 

Columbian  Plymouth  Rock  and  Partridge  Plymouth 
Rock. — These  newer  .varieties  of  the  breed,  vary  only  in 
plumage  color.  They  have  been  established,  as  other  varie- 
ties have  been,  by  a  system  of  cross  and  inbreeding  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  "Standard"  as  a  new  breed  because  they  have 
a  distinctive  color,  not  because  of  any  difference  in  real 
practical  value. 

The  Wyandottes. — The  Wyandotte  was  the  second  pro- 
duction of  American  breeders.  As  a  breed,  the  Wyandotte 
has  a  type  of  its  own.  In  size  and  shape  it  meets  the  require- 
ments of  a  general-purpose  fowl  probably  better  than  any 
other  American  breed.  In  size  it  is  a  little  smaller  than  the 


42  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Eock,  and  of  a  more  blocky  build.  Its  blocky  shape  and 
comparatively  early  maturity  make  it  a  good  broiler  breed. 
The  originators,  therefore,  had  a  valid  excuse  for  giving  it 
to  the  world  as  a  new  breed.  An  objection  may  be  urged 
against  the  "Wyandotte  that  its  type  is  not  very  firmly  fixed. 
Wyandottes  are  frequently  found  of  the  type  of  Plymouth 
Rock  or  Rhode  Island  Red  rather  than  of  the  blocky,  com- 
pact build.  While  they  are  fully  the  equal  of  the  Plymouth 

Rocks  in  egg  produc- 
tion, their  eggs  average 
smaller  in  size.  These 
are  points  that  the 
breeders  may  rectify. 
If  it  should  develop  that 
high  egg  production  is 
found  in  fowls  of  the 
long  body  or  rangy 
type,  then  the  Wyan- 
dotte would  have  little 
excuse  for  existence  as 
a  general-purpose  util- 
ity fowl.  However,  it 
has  not  been  proved  that 
a  long  body  is  a  sure  in- 
WHITE  WYANDOTTE  HEN  dication  of  good  laying 

(Courtesy  of  A.  G.  Duston,  Massachusetts.) 

qualities. 

As  to  origin,  the  Wyandotte  came  by  accident  rather  than 
by  design.  If  some  authorities  are  right,  a  Sebright  Ban- 
tam and  a  Cochin  hen  were  mated  together  to  produce  an 
improved  Cochin  Bantam.  Silver  Spangled  Hamburg  blood 
was  added ;  then  another  cross  and  a  half-bred  Cochin  hen 
was  used.  The  breed  was  given  the  name  of  the  American 
Sebrights,  later  the  Wyandottes.  The  first  Wyandottes 
were  produced  in  the  70  's. 


ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS 


43 


Variety  makers  have  found  a  fruitful  field  in  the  Wyan- 
dotte  family.     There  are  now  eight  different  varieties  of 
Wyandottes,  as  follows :  Silver,  which  was  the  first,  Golden, 
White,  Black,  Partridge, 
Silver    Pencilled,    Buff 
and  Columbian. 

The  Rhode  Island 
Reds. — This  is  one  of 
the  most  popular  breeds 
in  America.  More  than 
any  other  American 
breed  it  owes  its  distinc- 
tion to  its  practical 
qualities.  For  many 
years  it  had  been  bred 
as  a  farm  fowl,  estab- 
lishing a  reputation  for 
real  merit,  before  it  was 
taken  up  by' '  Standard ' ' 
breeders  and  admitted 
to  the  "Standard"  as  a 

breed.  In  weight  it  is  the  same  as  the  "Wyandotte,  but  in 
type  it  shows  more  of  the  Plymouth  Rock  characteristics 
than  the  Wyandotte.  It  is  less  suggestive  of  the  Cochin 
than  the  Wyandotte.  That  it  is  a  fowl  of  great  merit  is 
attested  by  the  fact  that  in  the  Little  Comptor  poultry  dis- 
trict of  Ehode  Island,  where  the  poultry  industry  has  been 
developed  to  a  larger  extent  than  in  any  other  district  of  the 
continent,  with  the  possible  exception  of  Petaluma,  Cal.,  it  is 
almost  universally  kept  on  the  farms.  The  Rhode  Island  Red 
has  been  in  existence  possibly  more  than  a  century,  but  fan- 
ciers were  slow  in  taking  hold  of  it,  and  not  until  a  few 
years  ago  was  it  admitted  to  the  "Standard  of  Perfection." 
It  is  now  a  prominent  class  at  all  poultry  shows  of  the 


WHITE  WYANDOTTE   COCK 
(Courtesy  of  W.  D.  Kelley,  Oregon.) 


44 


POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


country.  This  breed  originated  on  the  farms  as  a  prac- 
tical fowl  and  with  little  or  no  thought  of  making  a  new 
breed ;  that  it  has  gained  so  great  a  popularity  is  proof  that 
the  poultry-keepers  are  alive  to  the  importance  of  utility 
qualities. 

Considerable  obscurity  naturally  attaches  to  its  origin. 
It  is  believed,  however,  that  its  foundation  was  the  com- 
mon farm  fowl  on  which  were  crossed  breeds  of  Asiatic 


RHODE   ISLAND   REDS 
(Courtesy,  Howard  H.  Keim,  Oregon.) 

as  well  as  Mediterranean  blood.  There  is  only  one  variety 
of  Keds,  though  there  are  both  single  and  rose  comb 
strains. 

McGrew  says  that  this  breed  is:  " The  result  of  fifty  years 
of  careful  outbreeding,  and  it  would  have  been  better  for 
the  stamina  of  many  of  our  breeds  if  they  had  been  bred  on 
the  same  plan,  instead  of  inbred."  To  Dr.  N.  B.  Aldrich  of 
Fall  River,  Mass.,  is  generally  given  the  credit  of  intro- 
ducing the  Rhode  Island  red  to  the  public  as  a  new  breed. 


ORIGIN   AND  DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS  45 

The  following  interesting  facts  as  to  the  making  of  this 
breed  are  given  by  Miller  Purvis:  "All  over  the  country, 
men  who  had  sailed  the  seas,  brought  home  fowls  from  India, 
China  and  Europe.  These  fowls  were  crossed  and  mixed  in 
indiscriminate  confusion.  Red  Malay,  Shanghai,  Chitta- 
gong,  Brahma  and  Leghorn  were  bred  and  crossed  in  every 
conceivable  way. ' '  The  idea  of  making  a  new  breed  finally 
came  to  Dr.  Aldrich  and  Mr.  Buffington.  "They  did  not 
agree  on  the  exact  shade  the  bird  should  be,  and  each  se- 
lected those  which  suited  his  fancy.  Mr.  Buffington  called 
his  Buff  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Dr.  Aldrich  invented  the  name 
of  Rhode  Island  Reds  for  his,  and  each  took  hold  of  the 
public  fancy  and  two  new  breeds  were  born  from  the 
same  flock,  both  of  them  being  of  mongrel  blood  pure  and 
simple. ' ' 

The  Dorking. — The  Dorking  has  frequently  been  spoken 
of  as  the  grand  old  breed  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  an  ancient 
breed,  attaining  popularity  long  before  the  introduction  of 
the  Cochin  or  Brahma  into  Europe  or  America.  So  ancient 
is  it  that  some  enthusiatic  writer  has  said  of  it : ' '  It  would  be 
vain  to  attempt  to  trace  the  origin  of  a  breed  which  was  ac- 
curately described  two  thousand  years  ago  by  a  Roman  writ- 
er ;  and  as  Roman  stations  abound  in  Cumberland  it  is  quite 
possible  ;that  a  poultry-fancying  praetor  fifteen  hundred 
years  ago  might  send  or  carry  in  the  same  year  the  first 
couple  of  Dorking  fowls  to  the  bank  of  the  Thames/' 

Be  that  as  it  may,  it  is  certain  that  Dorking  is  a  breed  of 
antiquity,  as  well  as  a  breed  of  great  merit  for  meat  qual- 
ities. The  Cochin  craze  of  sixty  years  ago  threatened  its 
existence,  but  the  English  breeders  stood  to  their  guns  and 
saved  it  from  amalgamation  with  an  inferior  race.  "While 
a  large  proportion  of  our  general-purpose  and  meat  breeds 
have  an  infusion  of  Asiatic  blood  to  the  extent  of  dominance, 
the  Dorking  successfully  weathered  the  craze,  and  is  to-day 


46  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

as  pure  in  blood  apparently  as  though  the  Cochin  had  never 
been  known.  As  evidence  that  it  does  not  owe  its  size  to  the 
influence  of  Asiatic  blood  it  is  pointed  out  that  there  are 
records  which  show  that  the  Dorking  attained  a  weight  of  14 
pounds  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago,  or  fifty  years  before 
the  introduction  of  the  Cochin.  Brown  says  that  the  Dork- 
ing ' '  by  its  fineness  of  flesh  and  delicacy  of  skin,  the  white- 
ness of  the  flesh  and  legs  and  the  abundance  of  meat  carried 
upon  the  body,  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  table 
fowls  that  it  is  possible  to  obtain."  In  spite  of  the  fact 
that  it  lays  a  white  egg  it  maintains  much  popularity  in 
Britain.  It  cannot  be  said  to  be  a  heavy  layer,  though  we 
are  inclined  to  place  it  among  the  general-purpose  breeds. 

The  Orpington. — The  modern  Orpington  is  now  dividing 
honors  in  England  with  the  Dorking  as  a  general  utility 
breed.  From  the  English  standpoint;,  in  one  respect  at 
least,  the  Orpington  has  an  advantage  over  the  Dorking; 
that  is  color  of  egg.  The  combination  of  white  legs  and 
skin  with  tinted  or  brown  eggs  is  the  peculiar  achievement 
of  the  Orpington  makers,  just  as  the  Plymouth  Rock  lay- 
ing a  white  egg  would  be  an  achievement  for  American 
breeders  in  meeting  the  market  demands.  This  new  com- 
bination is  no  doubt  largely  responsible  for  the  popularity 
of  the  Orpington  in  Great  Britain.  The  combination  of 
white  skin  and  brown  egg,  however,  though  commending 
it  to  the  buying  public  of  Great  Britain,  handicaps  it  as 
a  competitor  in  America  with  general-purpose  breeds. 
Brown  places  it  among  the  general-purpose  breeds,  but 
from  its  weight  and  meat  qualities  it  might  well  be  placed 
among  the  meat  breeds  of  this  country.  If  our  market 
preference  for  yellow  legs  and  skin  and  white  egg  is  to  be 
maintained,  it  is  difficult  to  see  why  our  American  general- 
purpose  breeds  should  be  replaced  by  the  Orpington.  If 
we  wish  to  discard  our  American  breeds  it  would  be  more 


ORIGIN  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  BREEDS  47 

consistent  to  take  up  the  Dorking,  which  is  fully  the  equal 
of  the  Orpington  as  a  table  fowl  and  in  addition  lays  a 
white  egg. 

The  Buff  Orpington. — The  origin  is  somewhat  clouded 
in  obscurity.  Brown  and  other  English  authorities  argue 
that  the  Buff  Orpington  came  from  a  farm  fowl  known 
locally  as  the  Lincolnshire  buffs,  and  that  its  real  origin 
was  the  Dorking  crossed  on  the  common  fowl,  intercrossing 
with  Buff  Cochin.  William  Cook,  however,  is  usually  given 
credit  in  this  country  for  originating  the  breed,  and  he 
claims  that  he  crossed  the  Golden  Spangled  Hamburg  and 
the  Buff  Cochin,  and  then  the  Dorking.  Brown  states 
that  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  great  majority  of 
the  present-day  Buffs  are  directly  bred  from  Lincolnshire 
buffs  without  the  slightest  relationship  to  Mr.  Cook's 
strain.  Mr.  K.  de  Courcy  Peele  says:  "The  foundation 
had  been  laid  many  years  previous  to  Mr.  Cook's  time  in 
the  shape  of  the  Lincolnshire  buffs,  a  variety,  if  it  may  be 
so  called,  which  has  for  many  years  been  the  acknowledged 
farmer's  fowl  in  and  about  Spaulding  and  the  neighbor- 
ing towns." 

The  Black  Orpington. — There  seems  to  be  no  question 
that  William  Cook  was  the  originator  of  the  Black  Orping- 
ton. The  interesting  point  in  its  origin,  according  to  Mr. 
Cook  himself,  is  that  its  ancestors  were  rejected  specimens 
of  Black  Minorca,  Black  Langshan,  and  Plymouth  Bock 
(black).  The  Minorca  had  such  marks  as  red  earlobes; 
the  Langshan  no  feathers  on  legs,  and  the  Plymouth  Rock 
fowls  were  black.  This  is  a  mongrel  origin,  so  far  as  pres- 
ent exhibition  points  are  concerned.  From  such  an  origin 
we  have  one  of  our  most  beautiful  breeds  of  fowls  and 
one  of  considerable  utility. 

The  White  Orpington. — The  White  Orpington  is  said 
to  have  been  produced  by  a  combination  of  White  Leghorn, 


48 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


Black  Hamburg  and  White  Dorking.  Brown  offers  objec- 
tion to  this  origin  on  the  ground  that  as  two  of  these 
breeds  have  rose  combs,  the  White  Orpington  of  the  pres- 
ent day  would  show  the  rose  comb  very  frequently.  Later 

knowledge  of  breeding, 
however,  teaches  that  if 
proper  selection  be  made 
of  the  crossed  offspring, 
the  characteristic  rose 
comb  need  not  ever 
show  in  subsequent  gen- 
erations. Data  on  this 
point  is  given  in  Chap- 
ter III,  page  79.  Brown 
declares  his  belief  that 
the  White  Orpington 
originated  as  a  sport 
from  the  Blacks. 

The  recent  popularity 
of  the  White  Orpington 
in  this  country  is  strik- 
ing evidence  of  the  power  of  printers'  ink.  While 
the  breed  undoubtedly  has  great  merit,  there  is  no 
real  reason  why  it  should  displace  our  American  breeds 
which  are  not  handicapped  by  white  skin  and  legs.  Unless 
a  new  breed  can  be  shown  to  have  superior  egg-laying 
qualities  it  is  a  mistake  to  advocate  it  as  a  utility  breed 
when  it  possesses  other  characteristics  which  depreciate  its 
value  as  a  market  fowl.  If.  certain  breeders  wish  to  cater 
to  the  fancy  trade,  well  and  good ;  if  their  effort  is  to  pro- 
duce something  which  will  delight  the  eye  and  sell  for 
fancy  prices  on  that  account,  that  should  be  clearly  under- 
stood. But  utility  values  should  not  be  set  by  the  amount 
of  printers '  ink  used  in  advertising.  Where  the  real 


WHITE  ORPINGTON  HEN 
A  noted  prize  winner. 


ORIGIN   AND   DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS 


49 


standard  is  the  market  demand  for  meat  and  eggs,  it  is  a 
self-evident  business  proposition  that  we  should  choose 
fowls  possessing  in  greatest  measure  the  characteristics 
demanded  by  the  market.  These  suggestions  apply  to 
other  breeds  as  well  as  to  the  White  Orpington,  but  few 
breeds  have  been  boomed  as  the  latter  has.  It  is  a  breed, 
however,  of  distinc- 
tive merit,  but  as  a 
market  fowl  it  fills 
the  English  rather 
than  the  American 
market  demand. 

The  Sussex.— 
Some  authorities 
would  place  the  Sus- 
sex ahead  of  the 
D  o,r  k  i  n  g  as  the 
grand  old  breed  of 
England.  It  seems 
to  be  an  equally 
ancient  breed.  Its 
chief  point  is  its 
meat  quality. 
Wright  speaks  of 


LIGHT  SUSSEX 
Owned  by  J.  H.  Barker,  California. 


it     as     surpassing 


* '  every     other 
has    made    the 


breed  on  earth "  in  this  respect.  It 
fattening  industry  of  certain  districts  of  England 
famous.  It  has  something  of  the  shape  and  type  of  the 
Dorking,  but  somewhat  smaller ;  it  has  four  toes,  and  lays 
a  tinted  egg.  It  is  broad  in  back,  full-breasted,  fine  boned, 
and  hardy.  Barring  the  defect  of  white  skin,  it  is  a  type 
of  fowl  that  might  well  be  used  in  this  country  for  a  market 
fowl.  There  are  three  varieties :  White,  Speckled,  and  Red. 
The  Faverolle. — In  studying  general-purpose  fowls  ac- 
count should  be  taken  of  the  French  breed,  Faverolle.  In 


50 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


SPECKLED  SUSSEX  HEN 
Owned  by  J.  H.   Barker,  California 


size  it  belongs  to  the 
general-purpose  class. 
In  quality  of  meat  it  is 
excellent,  and  is  a  fair 
layer.  It  has  a  large, 
deep,  and  broad  body, 
rather  short  in  legs  and 
small  in  bone.  Other 
characteristics  are  white 
earlobes,  white  skin, 
heavy  beard  and  muffs, 
slightly  feathered  on 
legs.  The  fowls  are 
very  tame,  and  stand 
confinement  well.  In 

meat  qualities  they  probably  surpass  our  American  breeds, 

but  they  have  the  same  handicap  as  the  Orpingtons — white 

skin  and  brown 

eggs. 

IMPORTANT 
MEAT  BREEDS 

There  are  few 
breeds,  and 
none  of  them 
have  originated 
in  America,  that 
are  specially 
made  for  meat 
production. 
Breeding  for 
meat  in  this 
country  is  prac- 

tieallv    an    nn  SPECKLED  SUSSEX  COCK 

.icany     an     un-  Qwned  by  j  H  Barker>  California 


ORIGIN   AND   DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS 


51 


used  term.  Very  little 
earnest  concerted  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to 
breeding  for  excellence 
of  table  qualities.  This 
will  be  a  development  of 
the  future.  Were  there 
a  standard  of  excellence 
that  would  disqualify  a 
fowl,  or  throw  it  out  of 
the  market,  that  did  not 
show  at  least  25  to  30% 
more  meat  than  bone 
and  offal  at  six  months 
of  age,  there  would  soon 
be  a  change  in  the  meat 
qualities  of  the  fowls 
found  in  the  markets. 


DOMESTICATED 


FAVEROLLE  HEN 

(Courtesy,  Editor  "La  VTie  a  La  Champagne," 
Paris.) 

In  a  good  table 
fowl  there  should  be 
a  large  percentage  of 
edible  meat  and  a 
relatively  small 
amount  of  bone  and 
offal.  Heavy  bone 
and  frame  should  not 
be  developed  at  the 
expense  of  meat. 
Fowls  vary  greatly  in 
this  respect.  Mons.  E. 
Lemoine,  of  France, 
has  published  the  re- 
sults of  some  investi- 
gations on  this  point, 
as  follows: 


52 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


WEIGHTS  OF  MEAT  AND  BONE  ON  FOWLS  OF 

Weight  of  meat  on 
fowl  6  mos.  old 

Ibs.  oz.  grs. 

Barbezieux 4  10  92 

Cochins,  buff 4  9  0 

Courtes  Pattes 3  10  99 

Crevecceurs    4  9  66 

Dominiques    3  11  66 

Dorkings,  silver-gray  . .   5  4  282 

Du  Mans 4  6  64 

Game,  brown-red 3  15  233 

Hamburghs,  pencilled  .   1  15  335 

Hamburghs,  spangled  .   2  3  236 

Houdans 3  7  0 

La  Bresse,  gray 3  7  67 

La  Bresse,  black    3  7  375 

La  Fleche 3  5  339 

Langshans   5  4  359 

Leghorns    3  15  233 

Polish,  spangled 2  12  348 


DIFFERENT  BREEDS  * 
Weight  of  bone, 
etc.,  on  fowl  6 

mos.  old 

Ibs. 

oz. 

grs. 

4 

15 

0 

5 

4 

327 

2 

8 

316 

4 

14 

197 

2 

8 

279 

4 

13 

403 

2 

11 

11 

2 

7 

301 

2 

7 

224 

2 

7 

301 

2 

10 

140 

2 

8 

163 

2 

8 

240 

2 

9 

269 

5 

1 

78 

2 

10 

140 

2 

8 

18 

There  were  evidently  inaccuracies  in  the  work  on  which 
this  table  is  based.  The  Leghorns  are  given  a  weight  of 
over  six  pounds.  They  were  not  the  Leghorns  that  we 
know  to-day.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  breeds  vary 
greatly  in  respect  to  the  point  under  consideration.  It 
would  be  instructive  if  the  data  could  be  extended  to  in- 
clude our  several  American  breeds. 

The  table  on  p.  54  gives  further  data  on  this  subject 
from  work  at  the  Oregon  station.  The  fowls  used  were 
the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  and  White  Leghorn,  and  first 
crosses  of  those  breeds: 


1From   ''Poultry-Keeping  as  an  Industry   for  Farmers  and   Cot- 
tagers, ' '  by  Brown. 


THREE  BREEDS  OF  DIFFERENT  TYPES 
Representing  heavy,  medium  and  light  breeds, 
record  in  its  year 
more  a  question 


heavy,  medium  and  light  breeds.  Each  made  the  highest  egg 
ir  in  Australian  Laying  competitions.  High  egg  production  is 
of  breeding  than  of  breeds,  of  heredity  than  of  type. 


54 


POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 


BREED  OF  FOWL 

Plymouth 
Roclt 

B.E.&W.L. 

Cross 

White 
Leghorn 

Number  of  fowl   .... 

74 

90 

269 

276 

85W 

£6'; 

Live  weight    (Ibs.  oz.) 

7-0 

7-0 

5-0 

4-7.7 

2-14.94 

3-6.82 

Picked  and  bled 
(Ibs.   oz.)    

6-8 
7.14 

6-8 
7.14 

4-11 
6.41 

4-1.6 
8.41 

2-10 
10.43 

3-1 
9.66 

Per  cent  loss  in  pick- 
ing  and    bleeding  .  . 

Weight  after  drawing 
(Ibs.    oz.)     

4-12.9 
26 
0-8.2 

5-0.7 
22.42 
0-7.9 

3-11.6 
20.39 
0-6.6 

3-1 
25.32 

0-6.4 

1-14.2 
27.99 
0-3.9 

2-  .8 
31 
0-3.9 

Per  cent  loss  in  draw- 
ing   . 

Weight  of  head,  bones, 
shanks  (Ibs.  oz.) 

Total  weight  of  meat 
(Ibs.   oz.)  .  . 

4-4.7 

4-8.8 

3-5 

2-10.6 

1-10.4 

1-12.9 

Per    cent     of     edible 

meat    to    live    fowl 

61.33 

64.9 

66.2 

59.4 

56.1 

52.7 

It  is  seen  from  the  above  that  there  is  a  larger  percentage 
of  edible  meat  in  the  Plymouth  Rock  than  Leghorn.  In 
this  test  there  was  15%  more.  The  cross-bred  showed  prac- 
tically the  same  amount  as  the  Plymouth  Rock.  This  indi- 
cates an  important  difference  in  the  meat  value  of  different 
types  of  fowls. 

Meat  breeds  should  possess  a  finer  quality  of  flesh  than 
general-purpose  breeds ;  but  this  may  not  always  be  evident 
in  the  breeds  as  we  find  them.  Heavy  egg  production  is 
not  and  probably  never  will  be  associated  with  excellence 
in  meat  quality.  The  active  nervous  disposition  of  the 
egg  breeds  is  not  favorable  to  the  production  of  meat  of 
high  quality.  Good  meat  quality,  therefore,  should  be 
looked  for  among  the  slow,  inactive,  docile  breeds.  Again, 


ORIGIN   AND   DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS  55 

good  meat  quality  will  not  be  found  in  fowls  of  large  bone 
and  heavy  feathering.  In  addition  the  meat  breeds  should 
have  large  size.  The  only  breeds  of  any  prominence  in 
America  that  will  come  under  this  classification  are  the 
Cochin,  Brahma  and  Langshan. 

The  Brahma. — There  are  two  varieties  of  Brahma,  the 
light  and  the  dark.     The  light  Brahma  is  the  largest  vari- 


GOOD  UTILITY  BARRED  PLYMOUTH   ROCK  BREEDING  COCKERELS 
(Oregon  Station.) 

ety  of  fowls  of  any  breed.  The  Dark  Brahma  is  a  pound 
lighter  according  to  ' '  Standard ' '  weights.  The  chief  char- 
acteristics of  the  Brahma  are :  Large  size,  gentle  dispo- 
sition, slow,  easily  confined  by  low  fences  and  long  in 
maturing.  The  fowls  lay  a  brown  egg,  have  yellow  skin 
and  shanks,  and  have  heavily  feathered  legs.  There  are 
good  layers  among  them,  but  to  breed  them  specially  for 
laying  they  would  most  likely  degenerate  in  their  meat 
qualities.  To  maintain  them  as  a  meat  breed,  egg-laying 
should  be  secondary.  The  breeder  should  choose  his 
breeding  stock  from  those  of  good  meat  type  and  be  satis- 


56  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

fied  with  a  fair  yield.  The  special  point  of  the  Brahma 
is  in  filling  a  demand  for  large  roasting  chickens.  In  some 
markets  there  is  a  strong  and  growing  demand  for  large 
roasting  chickens,  and  the  Brahma  fills  the  demand  pretty 
well.  The  Brahma  as  a  utility  fowl  should  fill  an  impor- 
tant place  in  the  poultry  industry,  but  in  breeding  it  the 
market  demands  must  be  the  only  standard  of  excellence. 


LIGHT  BRAHMAS 

(Courtesy  of  E.  Shearer,  Oregon.) 

The  origin  of  the  Brahma  has  occasioned  some  contro- 
versy. It  has  been  claimed  that  it  was  made  in  America, 
but  this  is  disputed  by  the  best  authorities.  There  is  no 
doubt  of  its  Asiatic  origin.  Brown  asserts  that  the  original 
type  of  Brahma  is  met  with  in  the  Brahma-pootra  district 
of  India.  The  original  Brahmas  were  light  in  color,  the  dark 
variety  being  the  result  of  breeders'  work  in  England  and 
America.  They  were  imported  into  the  United  States  about 
1846,  and  a  few  years  later  into  England.  The  type  has 


ORIGIN   AND   DESCRIPTION   OF   BREEDS 


57 


been  changed  considerably,  more  especially  in  England 
where  the  breeding  of  fancy  feather  points,  especially  leg 
feathering,  has  been  carried  to  the  extreme. 

The  Cochin. — The  meeting  of  the  yellow  Asiatic  race  with 
the  white  race  took  place  in  1846 — speaking  of  races  of  poul- 
try. Nothing  disturbed  the  poultry  world  like  the  invasion 

of  the  yellow  Cochin. 
It  was  lauded  to  the 
skies,  just  as  it  was  bit- 
terly execrated.  Wright 
says:  "It  was  averred 
that  there  was  no  prop- 
erty that  a  good  fowl 
should  have,  but  this 
possessed  it;  it  was  de- 
licious roasted  or  boiled, 
and  the  hens  laid  two  or 
three  eggs  a  day." 
Again,  he  says:  "Loud 
and  long  were  the  pro- 
tests made  by  the  best 
utility  breeders,  but  these  were  written  down  by  the  glib 
pen  of  the  ignorant  but  ready  writer."  He  tells  us  fur- 
ther: "One  of  the  greatest  evils  that  befell  the  splendid, 
large,  well-formed  and  profitable  table  fowls  of  the  southern 
counties  was  the  introduction  of  the  Shanghai  or  Cochin." 
Again :  ' '  Then  came  the  Shanghai  fowls  and  the  craze  for 
size,  novelty  and  colored  eggs ;  and  ill  it  fared  with  our  old 
breeds."  "The  Cochin  or  Shanghai  craze  was  the  first 
blow  that  our  ancient  and  almost  perfect  farm  poultry 
received. ' ' 

Then  he  sarcastically  says  of  the  Cochin :  '  *  They  were  to 
furnish  eggs  for  the  breakfast,  fowls  for  the  table,  and  better 
morals  than  even  Doctor  Watts'  hymns  for  the  children,  who 


BUFF  COCHIN  HEN 

Exhibition  type  of  present  day.    (Courtesy 

of   Dr.   J.   J.    Hare,   Ontario.) 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


were  from  them  to  learn  kind  and  gentle  manners  and 
thence  forward  to  live  in  peace. "  In  1847  it  was  declared 
that ' '  all  England  was  given  over  to  a  universal  hen  fever ' ' 
— the  Asiatic  had  invaded  England,  and  the  Britisher  had 
bowed  the  knee.  It  is  asserted  that  $250  was  freely  paid 
for  a  cock  bird,  and  $25  for  a  sitting  of  eggs.  The  Queen  of 
England  had  received  an  importation  in  1845.  Poultry 


LE  MANS 

(A  special  French  meat  breed.      (Courtesy   of  Editor,   "La   Vie   a  La 
Campagne,"    Paris.) 

shows  became  fashionable  and  great  crowds  attended,  but 
in  process  of  time,  as  Brown  says,  "the  bubble  burst." 
Wright  declared  valiantly  against  the  crime  of  ' '  mongreliz- 
ing"  the  ancient  fowls  of  England  with  the  Cochin. 

The  invasion  occurred.  The  Cochin  disappeared,  but  not 
before  the  fowls  of  two  continents  had  been  ' '  mongrelized ' ' 
as  Wright  would  have  it.  The  Cochin  has  practically  ceased 
to  be  a  part  of  the  poultry  industry.  It  is  unknown  as  a 
practical  breed.  It  has  passed  from  the  stage.  But  it  has 
left  its  stamp.  The  yellow  leg  and  the  yellow  skin  came 


ORIGIX   AXD  DESCRIPTION  OK   BREEDS 


59 


from  the  Asiatic,  so  did  the  brown  egg.  All  our  prominent 
American-made  breeds  and  many  prominent  European 
breeds  have  a  mixture  of  Cochin  blood.  They  are  all  tainted. 
Like  the  bee  that  stings  and  pays  the  penalty  with  its  own 
life,  the  Cochin  has  suffered  annihilation. 

What  the  practical  effect  has  been  of  the  amalgamation 
of  the  two  races,  the  yellow  and  the  white,  it  would  be  diffi- 


POINTS  OF  THE  FOWL 


cult  to  say;  but  there  will  be  few  who  will  now  take  the 
stand  that  the  poultry  industry  was  badly  stung  by  the 
Asiatics.  As  the  case  now  stands,  the  Cochin  blood  is  found 
in  a  great  many  breeds  that  excell  the  present-day  Cochin 
in  practical  qualities.  The  extinction  of  the  Cochin  as  a 
practical  breed  was  due  not  so  much  to  any  glaring  demerits 
of  the  fowl,  but  rather  to  a  system  of  breeding  for  fancy 
feathering  which  made  it  impossible  to  maintain  in  the  breed 
whatever  useful  qualities  it  may  have  possessed.  The  com- 
paratively little  emphasis  placed  on  meat  qualities  by  poul- 


60 


POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


try-keepers  in  general  was  no  doubt  also  a  factor  in  its  ex- 
tinction. 

There  are  four  varieties  of  Cochins;  namely,  Buff,  Par- 
tridge, White  and  Black.  The  chief  characteristics  of  the 
Cochin  are  its  large  size — loose  feathering  giving  it  a  more 

massive  appearance, 
and  gentle  disposi- 
tion. In  shape  it  is 
short,  broad  and 
blocky. 

The  Langshan. — 
The  Langshan  also 
originated  in  China, 
but  like  the  Cochin 
and  Brahma  it  has 
been  improved  in  ap- 
pearance by  the  fan- 
ciers. It  has  a  greater 
popularity  for  laying 
than  the  Brahma  and 
Cochin,  but  inferior 


LA  FLECHE 
(Courtesy,  Editor  "La  Vie  a  La  Campagne,"  Paris.) 


as  a  meat  fowl.  A 
pen  of  Langshan  fowls  made  a  wonderful  egg  record  at  the 
Australian  laying  competitions,  the  particular  pen  being 
from  stock  imported  direct  from  China,  and  represented  a 
different  type  of  fowl  than  the  Langshan  now  found  in  this 
country. 

The  La  Fleche. — The  La  Fleche  is  one  of  the  leading 
fowls  of  France.  High  prices  are  paid  in  France  for  large 
fowls  of  good  quality,  and  this  breed  is  largely  used  to  sup- 
ply this  demand.  The  males  weigh  up  to  ten  pounds  and  the 
females  to  eight.  The  plumage  color  is  black.  In  this  breed 
the  French  poultry-keepers  have  evolved  a  fowl  of  great 
merit.  Its  flesh  has  exceptional  delicacy. 


CHAPTER    YI 

PRINCIPLES    OF    POULTRY    BREEDING 

The  breeding  of  poultry  for  definite  types  or  characteris- 
tics is  a  modern  art.  Even  at  this  day,  in  its  general  prac- 
tice, it  is  largely  a  hit  or  miss  business.  It  cannot  be  said 
that  it  has  been  reduced  to  a  science  if  by  that  is  meant  that 
the  breeder  can  predict  with  accuracy  the  results  of  his 
work.  It  has  been  contended  only  within  the  present  decade 
that,  on  the  one  hand,  the  hen  does,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
does  not  transmit  laying  qualities.  The  preponderance  of 
evidence  seemed  to  favor  the  view  that  heredity  counted  for 
little  or  nothing  in  the  science  or  art  of  poultry  breeding  as 
it  related  to  improvement  of  egg-laying  qualities.  The  stage 
had  been  reached,  it  was  contended  by  some,  where  the  breed- 
er must  look  for  defeat  if  he  expected  heredity  to  come  to 
his  assistance  in  producing  fowls  of  higher  fecundity.  Where 
was  the  luckless  breeder  to  look  ?  Was  he  to  rest  on  his  oars 
and  confess  himself  beaten? 

Before  poultry-keeping  may  become  a  more  profitable  and 
certain  business,  the  egg-laying  efficiency  of  the  hen  must  be 
increased.  The  average  production  of  the  flock  is  lower  than 
it  should  be.  How  to  increase  production  is  probably  the 
greatest  of  the  problems  that  concern  poultry  breeders.  If 
they  are  to  secure  the  fullest  measure  of  success,  they  must 
set  themselves  resolutely  to  the  task  of  solving  this  problem. 
Recent  poultry  breeding  history  offers  assurance  that  steady, 
persistent  work  will  bring  rich  rewards. 

While  the  interest  in  poultry  breeding  has  centered  large- 
ly around  the  egg,  it  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  the  prob- 

61 


62  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

lem  of  developing  meat  qualities  will  command  attention. 
There  is  an  inviting  field  here  for  the  breeder,  one  that  has 
barely  been  touched  upon  in  this  country.  Notwithstanding 
the  great  consumption  of  poultry,  there  is  only  one  reason 
why  this  is  not  double  what  it  now  is :  namely,  the  poultry 
that  goes  to  market  has  not  been  bred  for  market ;  or  rather 
not  much  consideration  has  been  given  to  market  qualities 
in  breeding.  An  inspection  of  the  poultry  that  goes  to  the 
average  city  market  amply  demonstrates  the  fact  that  more 
attention  has  been  given  to  breeding  for  weight  than  to 
amount  of  edible  meat  on  the  carcass.  There  is  too  large  a 
proportion  of  bone  to  meat.  What  the  breeder  should  aim 
at,  is  to  increase  the  amount  of  edible  meat  on  the  carcass 
without  increasing  its  weight.  To  accomplish  such  result 
would  be  a  worthy  achievement  for  American  breeders.  The 
growing  demand  for  greater  perfection  in  meat  qualities  in 
the  fowl  must  be  met,  and  one  of  the  developments  of  the 
poultry  industry  that  is  bound  to  come  in  a  few  years  will 
be  a  keen  competition  among  poultry  breeders  to  meet  the 
ideals  for  a  perfect  table  fowl. 

PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  IN  BREEDING 

Poultry  breeding  will  never  be  a  business  of  mathematical 
certainties.  The  final  result  of  the  breeding  must  rest  large- 
ly on  the  skill  of  the  breeder  himself.  In  other  words,  poul- 
try breeding  is  more  of  an  art  than  a  science.  The  success- 
ful breeder,  however,  follows,  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
certain  laws  or  principles  that  have  been  established  or 
proved  by  science.  A  brief  explanation  of  some  of  these  laws 
follows : 

Heredity. — The  transmission  of  qualities  or  characteris- 
tics from  parent  to  offspring  is  controlled  by  the  law  of 
heredity.  Brahma  chickens  may  be  hatched  from  eggs  of 
the  same  size  as  Leghorn  chickens ;  the  chicks  may  be  the 


PRINCIPLES   OF   POULTRY   BREEDING  63 

same  size  when  hatched,  but  from,  that  time  on  the  influence 
of  heredity  will  be  shown  in  the  larger  growth  of  the  chick 
that  has  an  ancestry  showing  large  size.  When  a  pure-bred 
Leghorn  is  mated  to  a  pure-bred  Leghorn  it  is  almost  a  cer- 
tainty that  the  offspring  will  be  fowls  of  small  size. 

When  the  male  offspring  begins  to  crow,  it  does  so  be- 
cause of  this  same  law ;  its  male  ancestors  for  thousands  of 
years  have  crowed.  Sometimes  the  breeder,  and  often  the 
nearby  neighbor  in  the  early  hours  of  the  morning  would 
prefer  that  this  law  was  more  flexible  and  that  it  were  pos- 
sible to  breed  chickens  without  a  crow,  but  the  breeder 
knows  by  experience  that  there  are  certain  characteristics 
that  have  become  fixed  and  that  if  he  attempted  to  change 
them  he  would  get  nothing  for  his  pains.  So  is  egg-laying 
a  fixed  characteristic.  It  is  a  law  of  nature  or  heredity  that 
the  hen  lays  eggs.  The  law  is  that  like  begets  like.  The 
practical  breeder  is  guided  by  this  law  first  and  foremost. 

But  while  the  law  of  heredity  is  persistent  and  inflexible, 
while  like  begets  like,  there  is  the  strange  contradiction  in 
nature  that  no  two  individuals  are  alike.  The  male  chickens 
all  crow;  they  are  alike  in  that  respect,  but  there  are  dif- 
ferences in  the  crow  which  are  easily  discernible.  So  the 
females  are  alike  in  regard  to  laying  eggs ;  they  all  lay  eggs, 
but  there  are  differences  in  the  layers;  some  will  lay  five 
eggs  a  week,  others  one ;  some  200  a  year,  others  20.  Another 
law  is  seen  here. 

Variation. — It  is  the  law  of  variation.  This  law  of  varia- 
tion has  already  been  referred  to.  Some  fowls  of  the  same 
ancestry  or  breed  vary  in  number  of  points  in  the  comb,  in 
size  of  comb,  in  length  of  wattles,  in  color  of  eye,  in  length 
of  limb,  in  color  of  plumage,  in  amount  of  meat,  in  size  or 
weight  of  bone,  in  number  of  eggs  laid,  in  size  and  color  of 
egg,  etc.  This  is  variation.  Variation  is  the  opportunity 
for  the  breeder.  The  problem  that  confronts  him  at  the  out- 


64 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


set  is  first  to  recognize  the  limitations  due  to  heredity,  and, 
second,  to  discover  wherein  certain  points  or  characteristics 
may  be  improved  by  taking  advantage  of  variation. 

How  may  desirable  variations  be  fixed  ?  Is  it  an  evolution- 
ary process  ?  In  other  words,  is  it  a  process  of  breeding  that 
requires  years  to  accomplish;  or  may  it  happen  at  once? 


VARIATION  THE  OPPORTUNITY  OF  THE  BREEDER 

Hen   (left)  laid  239  eggs  in  a  year. 
Hen  (right)   laid  7  eggs  in  a  year.     (Oregon  Station.) 

If  a  200-egg  hen  be  bred  from  a  strain  of  fowls  that  lay  only 
100  eggs  a  year,  will  her  female  offspring  lay  200  eggs  a 
year,  or  will  they  take  after  the  more  remote  ancestors  and 
lay  only  100  eggs ;  or  will  there  be  a  tendency  to  lay  more 
than  100  due  to  the  influence  of  the  immediate  parent  ?  Will 
the  immediate  parent  transmit  her  qualities  to  the  offspring, 
or  will  the  influence  of  all  the  ancestors  be  apparent  ?  Is  it  a 
variation  that  is  called  continuous  because  it  has  been  grad- 
ually evolved,  step  by  step,  or  is  it  discontinuous,  appearing 
suddenly,  having  none  of  the  characteristics  of  its  imme- 
diate ancestors?  The  old  theory  of  breeding  was  that  all 


PRINCIPLES   OF   POULTRY  BREEDING  65 

variation  was  continuous,  or,  if  a  sport  or  mutation  did  ap- 
pear, it  would  suddenly  disappear.  In  other  words,  all  im- 
provement was  the  result  of  selection — selecting  the  best, 
generation  after  generation,  until  finally  the  desired  type 
or  characteristics  became  firmly  fixed.  This  was  the  theory 
of  Darwin;  but  it  has  been  shown  that  all  improvement 
is  not  a  slow  evolutionary  process;  that  it  is  not  all  a 
matter  of  selection,  but  that  a  new  type  may  suddenly 
appear  and  start  a  new  variety  or  a  new  breed.  The 
vast  majority  of  ''sports"  or  mutants  may  not  breed 
true;  they  may  disappear  as  suddenly  as  they  came, 
but  the  breeder  with  a  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
new  varieties  of  plants  and  animals  will  carefully  test  any 
variations  that  point  to  higher  excellence. 

During  the  past  half  century  at  least  one  breed  of  fowls 
owes  its  existence  to  the  appearance  of  the  mutant.  A  white 
"sport"  came  from  a  dark  breed  and  resulted  in  one  of  our 
popular  breeds.  The  mutant  may  disgrace  the  yard  of  the 
fancier  who  is  breeding  for  uniformity,  but  the  breeder  who 
wishes  to  perpetuate  new  and  desirable  characteristics  or 
establish  a  new  breed  must  be  on  the  lookout  for  and  care- 
fully preserve  such  characteristics  when  they  appear. 

Two-hundred-egg  hens  may  or  may  not  breed  true.  Some 
of  them  may  and  some  may  not,  but  the  progressive  breeder 
will  take  his  chances.  So  far  as  it  is  now  known,  it  is  a 
chance,  and  the  sure  way  to  determine  whether  one  hen  or 
one  male  will  breed  true  is  to  test  them  in  the  breeding  pen. 

Reversion. — Variation,  however,  is  not  always  in  the  line 
of  progress.  Sometimes  the  offspring  may  vary  away  from 
the  line  of  improvement.  Sometimes  characteristics  that  have 
a  counterpart  only  in  remote  ancestors,  appear  suddenly. 
This  is  called  reversion  or  breeding  back.  The  scientific 
name  is  atavism.  What  causes  reversion  is  one  of  the  great 
mysteries.  There  is  a  latent  tendency,  largely  unknown, 


66  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

for  breeding  to  evolve  backward.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  the  offspring  shows  characteristics  that  have  not  been 
known  to  appear  for  centuries  in  the  history  of  the  breed. 
Reversion  works  for  desirable  as  well  as  undesirable  traits. 

The  causes  which  produce  reversion  are  not  always  ap- 
parent, but  factors  such  as  a  change  in  food  or  climate  are 
known  to  cause  reversion.  Characteristics  that  have  ap- 
parently been  lost,  but  are  not  lost,  only  latent,  may  reap- 
pear when  the  system  of  breeding  is  changed. 

The  reader  is  referred  to  page  six  for  reference  to  Dar- 
win's experiments  on  reversion,  wherein  Darwin  claimed 
that  he  secured  a  fowl  that  reverted  to  the  pattern  of  the 
jungle  fowl,  showing  characteristics  that  had  been  latent  for 
possibly  two  thousand  years.  The  experiment  was  repeated 
by  Dr.  Davenport  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  with  similar 
results. 

The  point*  has  not  yet  been  reached  that  the  origin  of  any 
particular  breed  or  variety  may  in  this  way  be  demonstrated 
with  certainty,  but  it  is  possible  by  crossing  a  Plymouth 
Rock,  for  example,  with  some  other  breed,  and  then  recross- 
ing  the  offspring  to  discover  strong  circumstantial  evidence 
as  to  what  breeds  were  used  in  producing  the  Plymouth 
Rock. 

At  the  Oregon  Station  a  White  Wyandotte  and  a  Black 
Minorca  were  mated.  The  offspring  were  white.  Mating  the 
white  offspring  together  chicks  were  secured  that  were  strip- 
ed in  the  down  on  the  back.  Neither  the  Minorcas  nor  the 
Wyandotte  chicks  show  stripes  in  the  down.  This  was  evi- 
dently a  reversion  to  some  remote  ancestor,  possibly  to  some 
of  the  breeds  that  were  used  in  the" making  up  of  the  Wyan- 
dottes.  It  is  known  that  the  young  of  all  wild  fowls  of  the 
Gallinaceous  species  are  hatched  with  stripes  in  the  down 
of  back,  and  it  is  possible  that  by  the  proper  crossing  this 
characteristic,  though  latent  possibly  for  a  thousand  years, 


PRINCIPLES  OF   POULTRY  BREEDING 


67 


would  appear  in  the  chick.  These  stripes  still  appear  in  the 
down  of  newly  hatched  chicks  of  the  Brown  leghorn  breed 
and  some  others. 

A  third  cross  from  the  same  breeds  produce  fowls  that 
were  barred  in  the  feathers,  though  barring  was  not  a  char- 
acteristic of  any  of  the  different  breeds  known  to  have  been 
used  in  producing 
either.  It  might  have 
been  that  later,  if  not  in 
the  making1  of  the  breeds, 
by  accident,  or  design, 
a  cross  was  made  with  a 
barred  breed,  and  the 
characteristic  of  bar- 
ring, though  latent  so 
long  as  no  crossing  was 
resorted  to,  reappeared 
when  crossing  and  inter- 
crossing took  place.  The 
fact  that  a  hen  may  lay 
only  a  dozen  eggs  in  a 
year  may  be  accounted 
for  by  reversion  to  the 
wild  ancestor.  In  cross- 
ing the  Barred  Ply- 
mouth Rock  and  the 
White  Leghorn,  some  90 
per  cent,  of  the  progeny  were  white.  In  crossing  the 
white  crosses  together,  a  few  of  the  offspring  were  blue  in 
color. 

Reversion  is  usually  an  evil,  not  always.  Where  improve- 
ment has  been  going  steadily  on,  reversion  must  always  be 
an  evil.  Sometimes,  however,  progress  has  gone  backward 
in  breeding,  and  in  that  case  reversion  may  restore  the  lost 


RESULT  OF  CROSSING  WHITE  WYAN- 
DOTTE  AND  BLACK  MINORCA 

Female  of  second  generation.    Note  barring. 


68  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAQEMENT 

character.  The  practical  lesson  to  the  breeder  is  that  he 
should  eliminate  everything  in  the  breeding  and  manage- 
ment that  may  cause  reversion  when  he  is  making  satisfac- 
tory progress. 

The  Pure-Bred,  or  Purity  in  Breeding. — We  are  accus- 
tomed to  considering  pedigree  as  synonymous  with  purity 
of  breeding.  The  Shorthorn  that  can  trace  an  unbroken 
ancestry  back  to  the  Duchess  family  is  a  pure-bred.  The 
Berkshire  that  has  a  clear  line  of  descent  from  Longfellow — 
an  animal  of  superior  excellence  that  belonged  to  a  breeder 
of  Missouri  about  twenty  years  ago — is  a  pure-bred  Berk- 
shire. If  one  of  its  ancestors  had  been  crossed  with  a  Poland 
China  a  number  of  years  ago,  even  though  no  trace  of  Poland 
China  could  now  be  detected,  and  it  would  win  in  the  show 
ring,  it  would  not  be  pure  bred.  The  pedigree  was  every- 
thing. But  Mendelism  has  given  a  new  meaning  to  pure 
bred.  It  has  shown  us  that  purity  of  breeding  has  a  physio- 
logical basis.  A  bird  or  animal  may  be  pure  bred  in  respect 
to  one  character  and  inpure  in  respect  to  another.  A  bird, 
for  example,  may  be  pure  in  respect  to  the  character 
"comb,"  but  not  pure  in  respect  to  some  other  character. 
If  a  cock  and  a  hen  of  a  single  comb  breed  when  mated 
breed  offspring  with  single  combs,  they  are  pure  bred  so  far 
as  comb  is  concerned. 

If,  however,  some  of  the  offspring  are  black  and  others 
white  they  are  not  pure  bred  in  respect  to  color  of  plumage. 
They  would  be  mongrels  in  color,  but  pure  bred  in  comb. 
It  is  a  question  of  unit  characters,  not  individuals.  Again, 
if  a  hen  laying  150  eggs  in  a  year,  mated  to  a  male  from  a 
150-egg  hen,  produces  offspring  that  lay  less  than  100  eggs, 
she  would  not  be  pure  bred  in  respect  to  egg  production. 
The  parents  are  pure-bred  when  their  own  characteristics 
are  reproduced  in  the  offspring  with  reasonable  certainty. 
A  hen  is  a  pure-bred  egg  producer  if  she  transmits  her  egg- 


PRINCIPLES   OF   POULTRY   BREEDING  69 

laying  qualities  to  her  offspring,  even  though  her  offspring 
come  in  various  colors,  sizes  and  shapes. 

A  noted  exponent  of  Mendelism  says  that  purity  of  type 
"has  nothing  to  do  with  a  prolonged  course  of  selection, 
natural  or  artificial. ' '  Again  he  says :  ' '  An  organism  may 
be  pure-bred  in  respect  of  a  given  character  though  its 
parents  were  cross-bred  in  the  same  respect.  Purity  depends 
on  the  meeting  of  the  two  gametes  bearing  similar  factors, 
and  when  two  similarly  constituted  gametes  do  thus  meet  in 


BREED  IMPROVERS 

Pedigreed  cockerels,  all  from  stock,  with  records  of  over  200  eggs  in  a  year. 
They  were  sent  to  breeders  in  various  sections  of  the  United  States  and  to 
several  foreign  countries  to  breed  better  layers.  Bred  at  the  Oregon  Station. 

fertilization  the  product  of  their  union  is  pure.  The  belief, 
so  long  prevalent,  that  purity  of  type  depends  essentially 
on  continued  selection  is  thus  shown  to  have  no  physiological 
foundation.  Similarly,  it  is  evident  that  an  individual  may 
be  pure  in  respect  to  one  character  and  cross-bred  or  impure 
in  respect  of  others."  (Bateson)  Again,  "An  animal  may 
have  one  thirty-secondth  of  the  blood  of  some  progenitor, 
and  yet  be  pure  in  one  or  more  of  its  traits. ' ' 

A  fowl  may  be  mongrel  in  one  respect  and  pure  in  another. 


70  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

A  Plymouth  Rock  may  be  "barred  to  the  skin"  and  trans- 
mit that  characteristic  to  the  offspring.  It  is  pure  in  that 
respect,  but  she  may  not  be  able  to  transmit  to  her  offspring 
the  yellow  leg  color ;  if  so,  she  is  not  pure  in  that  respect. 
The  Blue  Andalusian  is  considered  a  pure  breed,  and  yet 
from  the  standpoint  of  purity  it  is  mongrel  so  far  as 
color  is  concerned,  for  when  both  Andalusian  parents  are 
blue,  the  offspring  are  blue,  black,  or  splashed  white.  Ex- 
perimenters have  found  that,  on  the  average,  half  the  off- 
spring will  be  blue,  one-fourth  black,  and  one  fourth  splash- 
ed white.  Now  when  the  blacks  are  mated  together  the  off- 
spring are  all  black;  and  white  with  white  gives  all  white. 
The  blacks  and  whites  breed  pure,  but  the  blues  are  not  pure, 
in  other  words  mongrels,  so  far  as  color  is  concerned.  Again, 
if  blacks  and  whites  are  bred  together  the  offspring  are  all 
blue.  No  amount  of  selection,  line  breeding,  or  inbreeding, 
will  overcome  this  peculiarity,  or  trait  of  the  Andalusian; 
the  Blue  Andalusian  will  remain  forever  a  mongrel  race 
so  far  as  color  is  concerned. 

What  then  is  a  Pure-bred  Fowl? — It  may  be  denned  as 
one  that  possesses  the  characteristics  of  the  breed  to  which  it 
belongs  and  reproduces  those  characteristics  in  its  offspring 
with  reasonable  certainty.  Purity  of  breeding  refers  to 
the  blood  lines  or  pedigree  of  the  fowl  and  to  its  ability  to 
transmit  the  breed  characteristics  to  the  progeny.  The 
makers  of  poultry  standards  have  not  been  able  to  incor- 
porate in  their  standards  anything  signifying  egg-laying 
points,  because  it  has  never  been  demonstrated  that  there 
is  any  particular  shape  or  type  of  fowl  that  indicates  its 
laying  qualities,  nor  has  it  been  possible  or  practicable  up  to 
date  to  include  in  the  standard  a  requirement  as  to  perfor- 
mance, or  a  record  of  eggs  laid.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
only  requirement  to  admit  a  horse  to  the  Trotting  Register 
is  speed.  He  must  have  speed  and  an  ancestry  of  speed. 


PRINCIPLES  OF   POULTRY   BREEDING 


Breeders  of  dairy  cattle  have  a  register  of  merit,  and  no 
animal  is  admitted  to  that  register  without  a  certified  per- 
formance record. 

If  some  such  plan  could  be  worked  out  for  poultry  breed- 
ers, it  would  place  utility  poultry  breeding  upon  a  more 
certain  and  profitable  basis.  It  is  doubtful  if  this  can  be 
accomplished  without  state  aid.  The  dairy  records  are 
authenticated  and  certi- 
fied by  state  agricul- 
tural college  officials. 
It  would  be  possible  to 
maintain  breeding  sta- 
tions to  which  a  poultry 
breeder  might  send  a 
few  fowls  to  be  trap- 
nested  for  a  year,  or  the 
state  could  keep  on  a 
farm  of  its  own  suffi- 
cient stock  to  furnish  at 
nominal  cost  a  limited 
amount  of  stock  of  good 
laying  pedigree  to  cer- 
t  a  i  n  poultry  -  keepers 
and  farmers  in  different 

counties  of  the  state.  This  would  form  a  nucleus  for  a 
strain  of  good  producers  in  each  community,  from  which 
could  be  sold  stock  and  eggs  for  breeding  purposes  in  that 
community,  using  the  state  farm  from  which  to  secure 
breeding  males  with  which  to  maintain  the  egg-laying 
qualities  of  their  flocks. 

A  third  method  would  be  for  a  few  reliable  private 
breeders  in  each  county  to  trapnest  a  flock  and  keep  pedigree 
records,  selling  eggs  and  breeding  fowls  only  from  pedigreed 
stock.  It  is  not  clear,  however,  how  satisfactory  progress 


BARRED  PLYMOUTH  ROCK  MALE 
Son  of  a  218-egg  hen.     (Oregon  Station.) 


72 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


could  be  made  without  state  aid  or  state  supervision  in  some 
way  that  will  relieve  the  poultry-keeper  or  farmer  of  the 
burden  of  keeping  the  necessary  individual  records  and 
guarantee  the  reliability  of  the  pedigree.  To  be  of  value  this 
work  must  be  continued  year  after  year.  To  trapnest  the 
flock  for  one  year  and  pick  out  a  few  of  the  best  layers  for 
breeding,  would  amount  to  little.  The  pedigree  to  be  of 
value  must  have  several  generations  behind  it,  and  this 
means  not  only  that  trapnesting  must  be  done  each  year,  but 

also  that  a  record  must 
be  kept  showing  the  in- 
dividual parentage  of 
the  chicks  hatched. 

In  any  event,  there  is 
opportunity  for  private 
breeders  to  do  a  profit- 
able business,  if  they 
have  the  time  to  devote 
to  it  and  the  necessary 
knowledge  for  the  keep- 
ing of  pedigree  records 
and  for  the  proper  mat- 
ing of  breeding  stock. 

In  regard  to  show 
standards,  it  has  not 
been  made  clear  how 


A  GOOD  TYPE  OF  BREEDER 


From  200-egg  stock.  Note  vigor  and  alert- 
ness. Has  good  show  points  also.  (Oregon 
Station.) 


they  can  be  changed  so 
that  the  poultry  judge 

in  making  awards  may  be  able  to  place  proper  value  on  pro- 
ductive qualities  as  shown  by  the  trapnest  record  or  pedigree 
of  performance.  But  if  the  poultry  show  is  to  keep  pace  with 
the  development  of  productive  poultry-keeping,  something 
is  due  to  be  done  that  will  change  poultry  standards  and 
give  a  different  meaning  to  pure-breds  other  than  that  they 


PRINCIPLES   OF   POULTRY   BREEDING 


73 


breed  pure  or  true  to  certain  characteristics  of  color  and 
shape,  but  are  impure  from  the  standpoint  of  egg  produc- 
tion. 

Cross  Breeding. — In  considering  poultry  breeding  from 
the  farm  standpoint,  it  should  not  be  overlooked  that  a  large 
proportion  of  poultry  products  come  from  fowls  that  are  not 
pure-bred.  A  great 
many  farmers  practice 
crossing ;  others  practice 
grading  —  possibly 
a  large  majority;  while 
not  a  few  follow  another 
system  which  may  be 
called  mongrelizing. 
This  chapter  has  to  do 
with  the  first,  crossing. 
Probably  most  of  the 
farmers  of  the  country 
recognize  the  necessity 
o  f  introducing  new 
blood  into  the  flock  and 
of  avoiding  inbreeding, 
but  they  have  not  •  BARRED  PLYMOUTH  ROCK  MALE 
chosen,  intentionally  or 
otherwise,  to  preserve 
breed  characteristics  as 
they  are  described  in  the  "Standard  of  Perfection."  Com- 
paratively few  of  them  pay  attention  to  exhibition  points. 
It  is  contended  that  the  farmer  makes  a  mistake  in  not 
keeping  strictly  standard-bred  fowls,  but  he  excuses  him- 
self on  the  ground :  First,  that  the  initial  cost  of  stocking 
up  with  standard-breds  is  greater  than  the  business  would 
warrant ;  second,  it  has  not  been  demonstrated  to  his  satis- 
faction that  standard-breds  are  better  producers  than  cross- 


Oregon  Station.  Dam  laid  214  eggs  and 
sire's  dam  218.  A  fine  type  of  Plymouth 
Rock,  but  rather  large  as  a  breeder  of  high 
egg  producers. 


74 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


breds  or  grades ;  third,  that  the  great  bulk  of  animal  prod- 
ucts of  all  kinds  come  from  grade  stock.  Those  who  are 
making  money  out  of  pure-bred,  fancy-bred  livestock  are 
those  who  are  in  the  business  partly  or  wholly  of  producing 
and  selling  breeding  stock.  Fourth,  there  would  not  be 
enough  standard-bred  chickens  in  the  country  to  stock 
up  the  farms. 

Advantages  of  crossing. —  (1)    The  crossing  of  two  dis- 
tinct breeds  usually  results  in  greater  vigor.    This  is  more 

apparent  where  pure- 
breds  have  suffered 
from  close  breeding  or 
inbreeding.  Many  breeds 
of  poultry  have  been  in- 
jured from  too  close 
breeding.  It  is  common 
history  that  several 
breeds,  once  prominent, 
are  now  practically  ex- 
tinct as  a  result  of  too 
much  inbreeding.  A 
number  of  years  ago 
the  Black  Spanish  had  a  reputation  on  two  continents  as  a 
splendid  egg-producer,  but  as  a  result  of  insensate  breed- 
ing for  a  fancy  point  it  is  practically  unknown  to-day.  Its 
most  striking  characteristic  is  its  long  white  face,  and  the 
fancier  set  about  making  it  longer,  sacrificing  every  other 
point,  with  the  result  noted.  It  may  not  follow  that  close 
breeding  is  necessarily  fatal.  It  may  not  be  impossible  in 
the  hands  of  expert  breeders  to  intensify  fancy  points,  or 
any  other  points,  by  long-continued  inbreeding,  without  an- 
nihilating the  breed.  It  means  a  great  sacrifice  in  the  mean- 
time ;  its  numbers  are  so  diminished,  its  breeding  powers  so 
impaired,  that  practical  poultry-keepers  cast  it  aside. 


RESULT  OF  BREEDING  FOR  A  FANCY 
POINT 

The  photograph  on  the  left  shows  the  head 
of  the  original  Spanish  male.  The  one  on 
the  right  is  the  modern  bird.  (From  "Poul- 
try for  Table  and  Market.") 


PRINCIPLES   OF   POULTRY  BREEDING  75 

Wright  says,  * '  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  too  close  inter- 
breeding has  greatly  injured  the  Spanish  fowl,  and  that  not 
only  size,  but  also  constitution  and  prolificacy  have  been 
sacrificed  to  the  white  face  alone. ' ' 

Other  examples  could  be  given  where  close  breeding  for  a 
fancy  point  has  removed  breeds  from  the  arena  of  practical 
poultry-keeping.  The  Buff  Cochin  is  another  that  now  gets 
little  consideration  from  practical  poultry  breeders,  largely 
because  it  has  been  sacrificed  by  close  breeding  to  the  fad  of 
profuse  leg  feathering.  The  Brahma  has  been  similarly  in- 
jured. The  Plymouth  Rock  was  in  danger  from  the  fad  of 
giving  the  prize  to  the  bird  showing  the  best  barring,  other 
points  being  given  slight  consideration,  but  owing  to  its 
wide  distribution  on  the  farms  of  the  country  and  to  the  fact 
that  there  were  enough  breeders  to  ignore  the  extreme  de- 
mands for  barring,  it  has  not  suffered  as  some  other  breeds 
have. 

The  present  popularity  of  the  Rhode  Island  Red  is  largely 
due  to  its  vigor,  which  came  from  its  outgrowth  origin,  and 
it  would  have  been  better,  as  McGrew  intimates,  if  many 
other  breeds  had  been  bred  on  the  same  plan. 

' '  The  effects  of  too  close  interbreeding  on  animals,  judg- 
ing from  plants, ' '  says  Darwin,  ' t  would  be  deterioration  in 
general  vigor,  including  fertility,  with  no  necessary  loss  of 
excellence  of  form."  That  is,  there  will  be  a  loss  in  vigor, 
but  this  may  not  be  evident  in  the  form  or  appearance  of 
the  fowl. 

1  'The  evidence  convinces  me,"  he  says  again,  "that  it  is 
a  great  law  of  nature  that  all  organic  beings  profit  from  an 
occasional  cross  with  individuals  not  closely  related  to  them 
in  blood."  Again,  "The  crossing  of  varieties  adds  to  the 
size,  vigor,  and  fertility  of  the  offspring. '  * 

Edward  Brown,  in  "Poultry-Keeping  for  Farmers  and 
Cottagers,"  says:  "Recrossing  very  largely  remedies  this 


76  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

[deterioration  in  profitable  qualities],  for  it  is  found  that 
first  crosses  between  suitable  breeds  give  us  hardier  and 
more  prolific  birds  than  were  either  of  the  parents. ' ' 

The  evils  of  close  breeding  of  animals  are  pointed  out  by 
Shaler,  in  * '  Domesticated  Animals. ' '  He  says : ' "  Among 
the  evils  which  are  to  be  corrected  we  may  also  count  that 
which  arises  from  the  unguided  development  of  what  are 
called  fancy  breeds.  Thus  among  our  horned  cattle  the 
Jersey  has  been  bred  to  a  point  where,  from  the  iniquitous 
inbreeding,  which  is  against  what  may  be  called  the  moral- 
ity of  nature,  they  are  fearfully  subjected  to  tuberculosis." 

"It  is  a  generally  received  opinion,"  says  Tegetmeier, 
"that  cross-bred  chickens  are  the  hardiest  and  most  easily 
reared." 

(2)  The  use  of  cross-breds  enables  many  people  to  en- 
gage in  poultry-keeping  who  would  otherwise  be  debarred 
owing  to  the  comparative  scarcity  of  pure-breds  and  to  the 
high  prices  that  are  demanded  for  them.     If  the  object  is 
to  develop  the  industry  as  a  means  of  food  supply,  it  would 
be  a  mistake  to  advocate  the  slaughter  of  the  cross-breds.  If 
cross-breds  were  to  be  eliminated  at  once,  it  would  mean  an 
immediate  and  serious  decrease  in  poultry  products. 

(3)  Crossing,  where  it  increases  vigor,  improves  the  lay- 
ing.    The  productive  hen  has  good  vitality.     Heavy  egg 
production  requires  a  high  expenditure  of  energy,  and  to 
maintain  this  production  the  fowl  must  have  stamina.  While 
the  loss  of  vigor  may  not  be  apparent  in  the  form  or  out- 
ward appearance  of  the  fowl,  it  will  show  in  lower  produc- 
tion.   Vigor  is  not  so  essential  in  breeding  for  type  or  for 
show  qualities,  but  it  is  very  essential  in  breeding  for  eggs. 
In  experiments  conducted  by  the  writer,  a  hen  weighing 
three  pounds  produced  29  pounds  of  eggs  in  a  year,  about 
ten  times  her  body  weight.    Another  weighing  less  than  five 
pounds  produced  42  pounds  of  eggs  in  a  year.     To  with- 


PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY  BREEDING  77 

stand  this  strain  on  her  reproductive  organs,  her  vitality 
must  not  have  been  impaired  by  any  system  of  breeding. 
To  demand  production  of  that  intensity  from  a  strain  of 
fowls  that  have  been  bred  and  inbred  for  generations  for 
any  special  point  is  to  demand  the  impossible.  It  is  not 
here  claimed  that  standard-bred  fowls  or  show  birds  are 
necessarily  poor  layers.  It  is  not  impossible  for  the  breeder 
to  breed  show  birds  and  at  the  same  time  maintain  the  vital- 
ity necessary  for  the  high  production,  but  close  breeding 
for  either  fancy  points  or  utility  points  will  not  insure 
good  layers,  any  more  than  the  same  kind  of  breeding  with 
mongrels  will  produce  good  layers. 

(4)  New  breeds  and  varieties  are  produced  by  crossing. 
Most  of  our  modern  breeds  are  the  result  of  cross  breed- 
ing. Crossing  induces  variation,  and  it  is  in  taking  ad- 
vantage of  these  variations  that  new  breeds  and  varieties 
arise.  Some  crosses  or  hybrids  possessing  desired  charac- 
teristics breed  true,  and  the  type  at  once  becomes  fixed.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  great  majority  will  not  breed  true,  and 
years  of  careful  selection  will  be  necessary  to  fix  the  type. 
The  Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte,  Rhode  Island  Red,  and 
other  breeds  are  all  the  result  of  crossing.  The  Orpington, 
of  more  recent  origin,  resulted  from  crossing  many  breeds, 
and  William  Cook,  the  originator,  said  that  he  got  "so  many 
more  eggs  than  he  did  when  the  breeds  were  pure  that  it 
gave  him  a  new  idea." 

Jordan  and  Kellogg,  in  "Evolution  and  Animal  Life," 
say,  ' '  Often  as  much  progress  can  be  made  in  a  single  suc- 
cessful cross  or  hybridization  as  in  a  dozen  or  even  a  hun- 
dred generations  of  pure  selection. ' ' 

The  Primus  berry  was  produced  by  Luther  Burbank  with 
a  cross  between  the  Siberian  raspberry  and  the  California 
Dewberry.  Its  fruit  excells  either  parent  in  abundance 
and  size,  and  ripens  before  the  two  parents  begin  to  bloom. 


78 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


BARRED  ROCK  AND  WHITE  LEG- 
HORN, FIRST  CROSS 
Male.     White  is  dominant  color. 


The  Loganberry,  the 
product  of  a  cross,  is 
greatly  superior  to 
either  parent  in  produc- 
tivity. 

Breeders  are  just  be- 
ginning to  learn  a  little 
as  to  what  may  be  ac- 
complished by  crossing, 
and  it  is  not  unreason- 
able to  expect  great  im- 
provement in  the  eco- 
nomic qualities  of  fowls 
when  breeders  master 
the  science  and  art  of 
crossing.  There  is  an 

inviting  field  for  developing  by  crossing  new  strains  or 

varieties  of  fowls  where  egg  and  meat  production  forms 

the  chief  object  sought, 

but   it   should    only  be 

undertaken   by    those 

having  skill,  experience, 

and  patience. 

The    first    cross    will 

give  offspring  of  one  or 

two  kinds:   either  they 

will  resemble  in  one  or 

more  characteristics  one 

of   the    parents    exclus- 
ively, or  they  will  show 

resemblance    to    both. 

Certain     characteristics 

blend;    others    do    not. 

BARRED  ROCK  AND  WHITE  LEG- 
HORN, FIRST  CROSS 
Female.     White  dominant  color. 


Where  the  offspring  re- 
semble one  parent,  and 


PRINCIPLES   OF   POULTRY   BREEDING  79 

the  males  and  females  of  that  cross  are  bred  together,  some 
of  the  second  generation  will  resemble  the  other  parent,  and 
when  these  are  bred  together  they  will  breed  true,  the  off- 
spring will  all  resemble  their  parents.  This  was  shown  at 
the  Oregon  Station  in  breeding  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  and 
White  Leghorn  fowls.  The  first  generation  were  all  white,  or 
practically  so,  taking  after  one  parent.  When  these  crosses 
were  bred  together  there  was  reversion  to  the  Barred  parent, 
some  of  them  being  barred,  and  in  mating  these  barred 
crosses  together  they  bred  true  and  produced  only  barred 
offspring.  Again,  in  crossing  a  White  Wyandotte  with  a 


BARRED  ROCK  AND  WHITE  LEGHORN,  FIRST  CROSS 

Flock   showing   dominant   color   white. 

Single  Comb  White  Leghorn,  the  offspring  had  practically 
all  rose  combs.  Breeding  the  crosses  together,  tha  off- 
spring reverted  to  the  Leghorn,  some  of  them  showing  single 
combs.  Breeding  this  single-comb  offspring  together,  they 
bred  true  to  the  character  single  comb.  Rose  comb  is  a 
dominant  characteristic,  single  recessive,  and  recessives 
breed  true,  while  the  dominants  do  not.  Thte  is  Mendelism. 
A  knowledge  of  these  facts  will  often  prove  useful  to  the 
poultry  breeder. 

Disadvantages  of  Crossing. — In  the  foregoing  the  ad- 
vantages of  crossing  have  been  enumerated.  If  the  dis- 
cussion were  to  stop  here  it  might  be  inferred  that  the  poul- 


80 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


tryman  must  necessarily  cross  his  fowls.  But  there  are  cer- 
tain disadvantages,  some  of  which  will  now  be  considered. 
First,  before  there  can  be  any  crossing,  there  must  be 
breeds  to  cross.  Why,  then,  should  breeds  be  made  and  then 
unmade  ?  It  is  not  necessary  that  they  should  be  unmade, 
if  the  breeds  remain  in  their  original  purity.  The  only  ex- 
cuse for  crossing  is  that 
breeds  have  been  partly 
unmade,  or  they  have 
lost  some  of  their  origi- 
nal utility.  They  may 
have  lost  vigor,  and  size, 
and  productiveness,  and 
the  excuse  for  crossing 
is  to  restore  those  lost 
characteristics. 

There  is  no  need  of 
crossing,  however,  i  f 
sane  methods  have  been 
followed  in  breeding. 
But  in  crossing,  if  vigor 
and  fertility  be  restored, 
other  characteristics 
will  be  1  o  sj  ,  a  n  d 
it  wjll  be  for  the  breeder  to  decide  whether  the  gain  is 
equal  to  the  loss.  For  example,  he  is  breeding  White  Leg- 
horns and  they  have  lost  in  vigor  and  productiveness ;  a  cross 
with  Brown  Leghorns  will  restore  these,  but  he  has  lost  the 
perfection  in  white  color,  and  it  will  take  several  years  to 
eradicate  this  taint.  If  color  is  all  important  to  him,  or  if 
other  points  that  may  have  been  lost  by  crossing  are  more 
important  than  the  points  gained,  then  he  should  hesitate 
to  cross,  and  depend  rather  upon  the  introduction  into  his 
breeding  yards  of  birds  from  other  strains  of  the  same  breed 


WHITE  WYANDOTTE— BLACK  MIN- 
ORCA MALE,  FIRST  CROSS 

White  plumage  color  and  rose  comb 
dominant  characteristics. 


PRINCIPLES   OF   POULTRY  BREEDING 


81 


and  preferably  from  other  sections  of  the  country,  to  im- 
prove vigor. 

Tlie  two  alternatives  are  crossing  and  outcrossing.  The 
theoretical  objection  to  crossing  is  that  it  disturbs  blood 
lines,  and  the  influence  of  ancestry  is  lost.  In  other  wqrds, 
while  it  may  "  improve  the  breed  it  spoils  the  blood. " 
While  crossing  often  results  in  improved  strains  that  excel 
their  parents,  causing  a  tendency  upward,  it  is  also  true  that 


THE  RECESSIVE  COLOR   BARRING 

Barred  Rock  and  White  Leghorn  Cross.     D621  laid  275  eggs;  D.  622  laid 
272  eggs  in  a  year.      (Oregon   Station.) 

crossing  sometimes  reverses  the  engine  of  evolution  and 
throws  backward.  This  usually  happens  when  it  is  con- 
tinued beyond  the  first  generation.  Crossing  cross-breds 
with  cross-breds  will  start  the  engine  going  backward;  in 
other  words,  reversion  will  happen,  and  the  result  is  likely 
t6  be  mongrels,  or  even  a  type  resembling  in  some  charac- 
teristics the  wild  ancestor.  Indiscriminate  crossing  will 
lead  to  degeneracy  just  as  surely  as  will  indiscriminate  in- 
breeding. The  first  cross  will  give  vigor,  as  much,  probably, 


82  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND  MANAGEMENT 

as  a  dozen  crosses.  While  the  benefits  of  crossing  cannot 
be  ignored,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  mongrel  con- 
dition of  many  farm  flocks  is  due  to  indiscriminate  cross- 
ing. 

Grading. — Probably  the  kind  of  poultry  breeding  fol- 
lowed by  the  majority  of  farmers  would  be  better  charac- 
terized by  grading  them  by  crossing.  Grading  may  be  de- 
fined as  the  breeding  up  of  common  or  mongrel  stock  by 
the  use  of  pure-bred  sires.  The  object  is  not  to  restore  lost 
vigor  or  other  lost  characteristics,  nor  to  establish  new 
breeds,  but  to  improve  the  flock  by  means  of  the  sire  only. 

' '  The  failure  to  make  the  most  of  grading, ' '  says  Daven- 
port in  * '  Principles  of  Breeding, "  "  is  the  largest  single  mis- 
take of  American  farmers."  The  great  bulk  of  cattle  that 
furnish  the  meat  supply  of  the  world  are  grade  Shorthorns 
and  Herefords.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  farm  poultry- 
keeping,  the  failure  to  make  the  most  of  grading  by  the  use 
of  pure-bred  males  is  the  farmer 's  greatest  single  mistake.  In 
four  or  five  generations,  by  the  use  of  pure-bred  males,  a 
variegated  mongrel-looking  lot  of  chickens  may  be  bred  up 
to  a  uniform  type  resembling  closely  the  breed  to  which  the 
male  belongs.  If  the  male  is  chosen,  however,  as  he  naturally 
will  be,  from  a  strain  of  heavy  layers,  the  farmer  will  have 
the  satisfaction  and  the  pleasure  not  only  of  receiving 
greater  profit  as  a  result  of  his  labor,  but  also  of  witnessing 
an  object  lesson  in  breeding  of  supreme  interest  through  the 
gradual  but  sure  realization  of  his  ideals  both  in  increased 
production  and  in  the  gradual  unfolding  of  a  distinct  type 
and  color. 

The  important  thing  in  grading  is  to  begin  with  an  ideal 
and  stick  to  it.  If  the  result  sought  is  higher  egg  produc- 
tion, the  breeder  should  use  preferably  one  of  the  smaller 
breeds,  but  certainly  a  strain  that  can  show  records  of  high 
production.  Under  no  condition  should  this  purpose  be 


PRINCIPLES   OF   POULTRY   BREEDING  83 

departed  from.  If  uniformity  of  excellence  in  laying  is 
desired,  the  object  will  be  quickest  secured  by  using  each 
year  a  male  that  has  a  good  pedigree  in  that  respect. 
Changing  the  breed  or  type  of  male  each  year  will  result  in 
getting  nowhere.  The  failure  to  make  the  most  of  grading 
has  been  due  to  the  occasional  or  frequent  use  of  grade 
males. 

A  grade  may  have  apparently  all  the  characteristics  of 
the  pure-bred ;  he  may  look  so  attractive  that  the  breeder  is 
tempted  to  take  a  chance  and  use  him  for  breeding,  with 
the  result  that  improvement  is  likely  to  go  backward.  The 
grade  may  himself  have  all  the  characteristics,  but  he  has 
not  the  ancestry  or  blood  lines  behind  him  to  insure  the 
transmission  of  those  qualities,  and  instead  of  grading  up, 
the  process  is  liable  to  become  mongrelizing.  It  should  also 
be  clearly  understood  that  the  male  should  not  only  be  pure- 
bred, but  he  should  have  that  purity  of  breeding  that  ex- 
tends to  egg-laying;  in  other  words*,  he  should  be  from  a 
strain  that  is  known  to  consist  of  good  layers. 

Prepotency. — The  reason  a  grade  male  may  not  transmit 
his  characteristics  has  been  ascribed  to  a  lajck  of  what  is 
called  prepotency.  Prepotency,  therefore,  is  the  ability  of 
the  parent  to  fix  his  characteristics  in  the  offspring.  All 
parents  have  not  this  power  in  the  same  degree.  This  is  the 
significant  fact  for  the  breeder.  It  is  not  enough  to  know 
that  a  certain  male  or  female  has  a  long  pedigree,  or  that 
the  blood  lines  have  been  carefully  preserved  for  years. 
Prepotency  does  not  always  follow  blood  lines.  Later  knowl- 
edge has  given  a  modified  meaning  to  prepotency,  and  the 
fact  has  been  proved  that  one  individual  may  be  prepotent 
and  another  of  the  same  blood  lines,  possibly  of  the  same 
parentage,  is  not.  It  is  true  that  the  individual  having  been 
bred  pure  to  a  certain  type  for  a  great  many  generations  is 
more  likely  to  transmit  his  characteristics  than  would  a 


84  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

grade;  the  chances  are  much  in  favor  of  the  pure-bred, 
otherwise  all  the  laws  of  heredity  would  be  of  no  avail.  But 
it  is  certain  that  fowls  of  the  same  breeding  are  not  equally 
prepotent.  The  Mendelian  law  of  dominance  furnishes  the 
explanation. 

Dominance. — There  are  certain  characters  that  are  domi- 
nant. For  example,  white  plumage  is  a  dominant  color. 
This  was  shown  in  the  cross  mentioned  between  Barred 
Plymouth  Rocks  and  White  Leghorns,  where  the  offspring 
were  all  white.  They  resembled  only  one  parent  in  color. 
Color,  however,  is  only  one  .character.  The  offspring  of  a 
cross  may  take  after  one  parent  in  one  point  and  the  other 
parent  in  some  other  point.  For  example,  in  crossing  a 
black  Wyandotte  with  a  White  Leghorn,  the  offspring  will 
resemble  the  Wyandotte  in  the  kind  of  comb,  but  the  Leg- 
horn in  color  of  plumage,  a  white  chicken  with  a  rose  comb. 
It  is  said,  then,  that  the  white  color  and  the  rose  comb  are 
dominant  characteristics,  and  that  single  comb  and  black 
color  are  recessives,  and  no  matter  what  breeds  may  be 
crossed,  the  dominant  characters  of  white  plumage  and  rose 
comb  will  show  in  the  offspring,  and  the  recessive  charac- 
ters will  not.  It  is  not  a  question  of  ancestry  or  blood  lines. 

While  the  offspring  have  all  rose  combs  they  are  impure 
rose,  and  this  is  brought  out  in  the  next  generation,  when 
the  cross-breds  are  bred  together.  In  this  generation  re- 
version takes  place,  and  on  the  average  25%  of  the  offspring 
will  have  the  recessive  character  of  single  combs ;  75%  will 
have  rose  combs;  but  of  these,  25%  are  pure  rose,  that  is, 
they  will  forever  breed  pure  to  rose  combs,  but  the  50% 
are  impure.  This  50%  when  recrossed  will  segregate  in 
the  same  way,  25%  single  combs,  75%  rose  combs,  but  of 
the  75%  only  25%  will  breed  pure  rose  combs,  and  so  on. 

It  resolves  itself  into  a  question  of  testing  the  breeding 
powers  rather  than  a  question  of  selection.  The  25% 


PRINCIPLES   OF   POULTRY   BREEDING  85 

recessives  will  breed  pure  single  combs  and  no  amount  of 
selective  breeding  will  make  them  purer.  This  is  the  dis- 
covery of  Mendel.  Twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  dominants, 
rosecombs,  will  breed  pure;  that  is,  a  third,  but  the  only 
way  to  pick  out  the  third  or  determine  which  will  breed 
pure  rose  combs,  is  to  test  them  by  breeding.  The  way  to 
test  them  is  to  mate  them  to  single  comb  fowls,  and  if  the 
progeny  have  rose  combs,  the  rose  comb  parent  is  pure  and 
will  always  breed  pure  rose  combs.  This  requires,  of 
course,  individual  mating.  All  this  gives  a  new  meaning 
to  prepotency.  Prepotency  is  not  altogether  dependent 
upon  length  of  pedigree. 

Egg  Color  and  Dominance. — It  has  been  discovered,  how- 
ever, that  not  all  characters  segregate  in  this  way,  and 
herein  comes  some  confusion.  Some  characters  segregate, 
others  unite  or  blend.  In  place  of  resembling  one  parent, 
the  offspring  resembled  both  in  part.  Again  referring  to 
the  experiment  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  and  White  Leg- 
horns, the  color  of  eggs  laid  by  the  female  offspring  of  the 
cross  showed  a  blend.  The  color  of  the  Leghorn  egg  is 
white,  while  the  egg  of  the  Plymouth  Rock  is  brown.  The 
eggs  from  the  cross  averaged  medium,  showing  the  influence 
of  both  parents.  This  character,  color  of  egg,  did  not  act 
like  the  character  color  of  plumage.  In  the  one  case  there 
was  a  blend,  in  the  other,  segregation.  In  one,  the  offspring 
took  after  both  parents,  in  the  other,  after  one  parent, 

Pure-bred  not  Always  Prepotent. — In  carrying  this  ex- 
periment further,  white  cross-bred  pullets  from  the  mating 
of  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  and  White  Leghorns,  were  mated 
to  pure-bred  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  males,  with  the  result 
that  the  offspring  had  white  plumage.  They  took  after  the 
cross-bred  parent,  rather  than  the  pure-bred  parent.  Other 
white  pullets  of  the  same  cross  were  mated  to  pure-bred 
Brown  Leghorn  males,  and  out  of  over  150  chicks  from  this 


86  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

mating  less  than  a  dozen  took  after  the  pure-bred  male  in 
color;  the  balance  were  all  white.  The  practical  point 
brought  out  in  this  experiment  is  that  prepotency  does  not 
follow  blood  lines,  and  that  in  mating  a  cross-bred  or  mon- 
grel to  a  pure-bred  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  off- 
spring will  take  after  the  pure-bred  in  all  characters.  Pre- 
potency is  not  always  measured  by  length  of  pedigree 

While  Mendelism  is  yet  in  an  "  embryonic "  stage,  and 
while  confusion  prevails  as  to  its  teachings  in  certain  re- 
spects, a  clue  has  undoubtedly  been  found  that  will  lead 
the  way  to  important  developments  in  the  future. 

Outcrossing. — The  term  outcrossing  is  frequently  used 
by  breeders.  It  means  the  use  of  males  from  strains  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  females,  but  belonging  to  the  same 
breed  or  variety.  It  is  breeding  within  breed  lines,  but  not 
within  family  lines.  If  a  careful  system  of  outcrossing  be 
practiced,  resort  to  crossing  will  probably  seldom  be  neces- 
sary to  keep  up  the  stamina  of  the  breed.  This  is  the  main 
purpose  of  outcrossing.  Another  object  in  outcrossing  is 
to  improve  the  family  or  strain  in  some  point  or  character 
which  it  may  lack  by  introducing  blood  from  another  strain 
which  is  strong  in  the  character  the  other  lacks, 

Inbreeding. — The  mating  together  or  breeding  together 
of  closely  related  males  and  females,  is  inbreeding.  Where 
the  relationship  is  close,  inbreeding  is  the  term  used,  but 
where  the  relationship  is  more  or  less  remote  it  is  called  by 
many  authorities  line  breeding.  The  only  difference,  if 
there  should  in  reality  be  any  difference,  between  inbreed- 
ing and  line  breeding,  is  a  difference  in  degree  of  relation- 
ship. It  is  doubtful  whether  it  would  not  be  just  as  well 
to  call  it  all  by  the  one  name,  "inbreeding." 

Breeding  of  brother  and  sister  together  is  the  closest 
kind  of  inbreeding.  Mating  parent  to  offspring  is  also 
close  breeding,  though  this  is  frequently  called  line  breed- 


PRINCIPLES   OF   POULTRY  BREEDING  87 

ing.  The  subject  of  inbreeding  is  a  much  debated  one,  and 
until  there  is  a  better  and  more  perfect  understanding  of 
its  effects  the  debate  should  continue.  It  is  unquestionably 
a  most  important  problem. 

There  are  those  who  steadily  maintain  the  ground  that 
inbreeding  is  necessary  to  breed  improvement.  It  is  prob- 
ably true  that  most  of  our  breeds  of  poultry,  as  well  as  of 
live  stock,  were  largely  inbred  in  the  making.  It  may  be 
open  to  doubt  whether  this  was  not  largely  due  to  cir- 
cumstances or  to  the  fact  that  in  the  making  of  new  breeds 
there  were  not  at  hand  two  or  more  families  unrelated  by 
blood  lines  from  which  to  draw  upon,  rather  than  to  the 
merit  of  the  system  itself. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  close  breeding  or  inbreeding 
has  been  a  costly  blunder,  and  it  is  playing  with  a  danger- 
ous weapon  when  inbreeding  is  held  up  to  poultry  breeders 
as  always  desirable  or  necessary.  It  is  a  problem  that  can 
be  solved  only  after  long  experiment,  and  it  appears  to  the 
writer  that  the  data  is  not  at  hand  upon  which  to  base  final 
judgment.  In  the  meantime  a  common-sense  view  should 
be  taken  by  the  breeder,  which  should  prompt  him  to  avoid 
close  breeding  and  suggest  that  where  it  seems  necessary  to 
fix  or  maintain  some  desirable  characteristics,  the  breeding 
together  of  distant  relatives  may  possibly  be  practiced  to 
advantage. 

The  purpose  of  the  breeding  should  be  considered  in 
discussing  the  effect  of  inbreeding.  The  evil  effect  of  in- 
breeding may  not  1*3  apparent  in  the  form  or  beauty  of 
the  fowl,  but  may  result  in  reduced  vigor  and  lower  breed- 
ing power.  It  may  show  in  the  egg  yield,  in  the  fertility 
of  the  eggs,  and  in  the  vigor  or  mortality  of  the  chicks,  but 
not  necessarily  in  the  type  or  prize-winning  qualities. 
Again,  it  may  be  possible  to  breed  a  larger  proportion  of 
prize  winners  through  inbreeding  than  by  outcrossing,  but 


88  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

at  the  same  time  the  'egg-laying  characteristics  may  be  in- 
jured. The  explanation  is  that  the  reproductive  organs, 
i.e.,  the  egg-laying  organs,  are  more  closely  related  to  vigor 
than  is  the  shape  or  type  of  fowl. 

It  is  denied  by  many  that  a  loss  in  vigor  necessarily 
results  from  inbreeding.  By  careful  selection  of  breeding 
stock,  it  is  claimed,  no  loss  in  vigor  will  follow.  Let  us 
see. 

What  is  the  Purpose  of  Inbreeding. — It  is  to  fix  desired 
characteristics.  If  a  superior  fowl  be  found,  one  that 
possesses  in  a  high'  degree  certain  points  of  value  to  the 
breeder,  it  is  claimed  that  by  breeding  her  to  her  son  her 
characteristics  will  be  more  quickly  fixed  in  the  offspring 
than  would  be  the  case  by  any  other  system  of  breeding. 
The  points  of  superiority  may  be  color  of  plumage,  shape 
of  comb,  shape  of  body,  or  number  of  eggs  laid,  and  various 
other  points  that  the  breeder  wishes  to  fix.  If  the  hen  has 
proved  to  be  a  good  layer,  the  theory  of  inbreeding  is  that 
by  breeding  her  to  her  son,  there  will  be  more  probability 
of  getting  good  layers  than  if  she  be  mated  to  a  male  that 
is  not  related  to  her. 

If  the  point  bred  for  be  color  or  type,  it  may  be  that 
inbreeding  or  line  breeding  will  give  a  larger  proportion 
of  offspring  strong  in  those  points  than  would  outcrossing, 
even  though  the  males  in  either  case  be  equally  good  in 
those  points.  But  it  is  a  different  matter  when  the  point  to 
be  bred  for  is  one  that  has  to  do  with  their  productive  or 
reproductive  qualities,  because  those  points  are  so  inti- 
mately related  or  correlated  to  vigor  of  the  fowl  that  it  is 
doubtful  if  the  theory  will  hold. 

Inbreeding  Experiments. — Recent  experiments  at  the 
Oregon  Station  indicate  that  the  evil  effects  of  inbreeding 
overbalance  the  possible  good.  Fowls  with  no  apparent 
lack  of  vigor,  and  no  defects  in  external  points  of  shape  and 


PRINCIPLES  OF   POULTRY  BREEDING  89 

color,  showed,  first,  in  a  lower  fertility  of  eggs,  in  a  lower 
percentage  of  fertile  eggs  hatched,  and  in  a  higher  rate  of 
mortality  in  the  chickens,  that  there  was  a  loss  of  vigor 
due  to  inbreeding  mother  to  son.  Second,  the  result  showed 


OREGON  STATION  HEN  C543,  AND  THE  EGGS  SHE  LAID  IN 

A   YEAR— 291 
An  exceptional  layer  though  inbred. 


decreased  egg  yield  in  the  pullet  offspring.  From  different 
matings  the  inbred  pullet  offspring  showed  a  lower  average 
egg  yield  than  other  matings  not  inbred. 

Again,  it  is  claimed  that  inbreeding  tends  to  uniformity 


90  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

of  type  and  that  it  "discourages  variability."  ("Prin- 
ciples of  Breeding,"  Davenport,  p.  610.)  That  may  be 
true  of  type,  but  these  experiments  with  fowls  gave  results 
in  production  exactly  the  opposite.  There  was  less  uni- 
formity in  egg  production  from  those  inbred  than  from 
those  not  inbred.  An  inbred  pullet,  a  daughter  of  hen  250 
(record  402  eggs  in  two  years)  inbred  to  her  son,  laid  291 
eggs  in  a  year,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  layers  ever 
produced  at  the  Station.  The  same  mating  that  produced 
this  phenomenal  layer  (291  eggs)  produced  the  second 
poorest  layer  in  the  flock,  which  laid  124.  The  average 
of  all  the  inbred  pullets  of  this  mating  was  181  eggs. 

The  same  thing  was  shown  in  the  production  of  pullets 
of  another  mating,  hen  034  (record  229)  inbred  mother 
to  son — greater  variability  and  lower  production  than  the 
other  matings.  The  results  in  this  case  showed  a  high 
record  of  237  eggs,  and  a  low  record  of  119,  the  lowest  of 
all  the  flock,  the  average  being  187  eggs.  Those  of  the  flock 
inbred  averaged  182,  against  an  average  of  219  of  all  not 
inbred,  or  20%  more.  In  the  latter  case,  the  highest  was 
303  and  the  lowest  163.  In  the  previous  year,  the  daughters 
of  034,  not  inbred,  averaged  210  eggs,  and  the  daughters 
of  250,  not  inbred,  averaged  221.  In  all  these  matings 
males  from  high  producing  hens  were  used.  The  egg  yield 
from  the  inbred  fowls  while  20%  lower  than  the  others  is 
above  the  yield  of  the  average  flock  of  fowls,  indicating  that 
a  good  yield  may  be  secured  by  inbreeding,  not  because  of 
it,  but  in  spite  of  it.  It  will  pay  to  inbreed  some,  rather 
than  use  breeding  stock  that  are  indifferent  or  poor  layers. 
So  far  as  fixing  the  character  of  egg  production,  inbreeding 
proved  a  failure.  Not  only  was  there  lower  production  but 
there  was  greater  variability  in  production. 

If  as  these  experiments  strongly  indicate  that  heavy  egg 
production  demands  a  high  vigor  and  that  the  reproductive 


PRINCIPLES  OF   POULTRY  BREEDING  91 

organs  of  the  fowl  are  peculiarly  sensitive  to  inbreeding, 
then  the  breeder  whose  object  is  higher  egg  production  must 
not  follow  inbreeding,  even  though  it  may  have  accom- 
plished in  the  way  of  improving  type  in  both  live-stock  and 
poultry  all  that  its  strongest  supporters  claim  for  it. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PROBLEM  OF  HIGHER  FECUNDITY 

Various  factors  relating  to  environment,  such  as  feeding, 
housing,  and  management,  affect  the  egg  yield,  and  are 
discussed  in  other  chapters.  Unless  these  conditions  are 
favorable  the  egg  yield  will  be  low.  It  has  also  been  seen 
that  systems  of  breeding  and  mating  that  affect  vigor  in- 
fluence the  egg  yield. 

It  is  another  question  whether  high  egg-laying  is  trans- 


LIKE   BEGETS   LIKE 

Two   full   sisters.      Oregon    Station.      C119    (left)    laid   241    eggs.      C166    (right) 

laid  233  eggs. 

mitted  from  parent  to  offspring.  This  is  probably  the  most 
important  problem  of  all.  It  would  seem  that  any  doubt 
on  this  point  could  very  easily  be  set  at  rest  by  actual  dem- 
onstration, but  experimenters  have  found  the  problem  a 
difficult  one.  The  actual  experimental  data  at  hand  are 
not  very  extensive  and  possibly  not  conclusive  enough  to 

92 


PROBLEM  OF   HIGHER   FECUNDITY 


93 


LIKE  DOES  NOT  ALWAYS  BEGET  LIKE 
Two  full  sisters.     C48    (left)   laid  268  eggs.     C60    (right)  laid  3  eggs. 

satisfy  scientific  demand 
in  regard  to  the  mode 
of  inheritance,  if  not  of 
the  fact  of  inheritance 
itself. 

The  breeding  work  of 
the  Maine  Station,  be- 
gun by  Professor  Go- 
well  and  continuing 
nine  years  in  co- 
operation with  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry during  part  of 
that  period,  produced 
negative  results  so  far 
as  raising  the  standard 
of  egg  production  of  the 


OREGON  STATION  HEN  D18 

271  eggs  in  a  year.    From  same  dam  as  C119 

and    C166,    but    different    sire.      Note   short 

body. 


flock  under  investigation  was  concerned.    After  a  thorough 
study   had   been   made   of  the   trapnest    records   the   an- 


94 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


nouncement  was  made  in  1908  (Bulletin  157)  that  "there 
is  no  evidence  of  any  increase  in  the  average  production 
of  the  flock."  The  average  production  and  the  number  of 
fowls  in  the  experiment  are  given  herewith  for  the  differ- 
ent years : 

Number  of  fowls  Actual  average 

YEAR  AND  PEN                   completing  production 

the  year  per  Tien 

1899-1900 70  136.36 

1900-1901 85  14344 

1901-1902 48  15558 

1902-1903 147  13542 

1903-1904 254  117.90 

1904-1905    50  bird  pens 283  134.07 

1905-1906    50  bird  pens 178  140.14 

1906-1907    50  bird  pens 187  113.24 

In  a  subsequent  bulletin  (Number  166,  1909)  it  was  stat- 
ed: "  The  aim  so  far  has 
been  to  set  forth  in  as 
clear  and  unequivocal 
manner  as  possible  the 
definite  fact  that  in  the 
S  t  a  t  i  o  n  's  experience 
thus  far  the  daughter 
of  a  200-egg  hen  is  on 
the  average  an  excep- 
tionally poor  winter 
layer  instead  of  an  ex- 
ceptionally good  one." 
In  this  case  the  mothers' 
average  winter  produc- 
tion, November  1  to 
March  1,  was  55.8  eggs, 
and  the  daughters'  15.29  eggs  per  fowl.  The  results  further 
showed  that  the  daughters  of  hens  laying  less  than  200 


BARRED  ROCK  HEN  A78 

Record  212  eggs.    A  good  type  of  Plymouth 
Rock. 


PROBLEM  OF  HIGHER  FECUNDITY 


95 


eggs  gave  a  higher  winter  egg  production  than  those  from 
the  200-egg  hens. 

Again,  in  Bulletin  192  (1911),  the  following  statement 
is  made :  ' 1  There  does  not  exist  any  critical  evidence  that  the 
selection  of  the  highest  laying  birds  on  the  basis  of  the  trap- 
nest  record  as  breeders  will  insure  or  guarantee  any  definite 
permanent  improvement  in  the  average  flock  production." 

'  *  It  now  seems  quite  gen- 
erally agreed,"  quoting 
from  the  same  bulletin, 
"that  about  the  only  prof- 
itable function  of  the  trap- 
nest  in  practical  or  com- 
mercial poultry-keeping  is 
in  connection  with  special 
needs  or  problems,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  work  of  the 
fancier. ' ' 

The  publication  of  these 
results  was  somewhat  dis- 
couraging to  breeders  and 
provoked  widespread  dis- 

r>n««mn  TViP  pritipfll  rpflflpr  Son  of  A78— 21£  eggs.  Sire's  dam  259 
CUSSlOn.  J  eggs.  Oregon  Station. 

will  observe,  however,  that 

the  failure  to  show  an  improvement  in  production  by  selec- 
tion is  not  put  forward  as  proof  that  it  is  impossible,  but 
only  that  there  is  no  evidence  in  the  records  of  that  Station 
that  it  is.  Again,  in  the  case  where  the  daughters  of  200- 
egg  hens  were  poorer  layers  than  the  daughters  of  layers 
not  so  good,  it  is  not  held  that  this  result  must  always  be 
expected,  but  only  that  "  in  the  Station's  experience"  this 
was  obtained. 

The  statement  in  regard  to  the  value  of  the  trapnest  is 
rather  difficult  to  understand  because  all  improvement  must 


A  GOOD  PLYMOUTH  ROCK  HEAD, 
WITH  THE  STAMP  OF  VIGOR 


96 


POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


rest  upon  individual  performance.  A  knowledge  of  indi- 
vidual performance  is  only  possible  where  the  trapnest  is 
used. 

It  seems  to  the  writer  that  the  extreme  difference  in  the 
yield  of  55  eggs  as  the  winter  production  of  the  dams  and 
15  eggs  for  the  daughters,  cannot  be  satisfactorily  explained 

except  upon  the  theory 
that  environmental  con- 
ditions were  unfavor- 
able in  the  case  of  the 
daughters  —  that  the 
conditions  surrounding 
their  breeding  and  man- 
agement were  in  some 
way  unfavorable  to  high 
production. 

mThe  methods  followed 
in  selecting  the  breeding 
H  stock,  in  the  nine  years' 

experiment,  was  to  use 
only     hens    that     had 
records  of  150  eggs  or 
more,  and  after  the  first 
year    male    birds    only 
were  used   whose  dams 
laid  200  eggs  or  more. 
At  the  Oregon  Station,  later  experiments  produced  dif- 
ferent results.     The  records  of  six  years'  breeding  work 
with  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  are  summarized  on  the  next 
page. 

The  original  flock  of  95  pullets  were  purchased  from  six 
different  breeders.  The  first  and  second  years'  results  have 
little  significance  so  far  as  the  question  of  inheritance  is 
concerned.  There  had  not  been  time  enough  to  make  selec- 


BARRED  PLYMOUTH  ROCK  HEN  65— 
218  EGGS 

Oregon  Station's  first  200-egg  hen.     Her 
daughter  and  granddaughter  on  p.  97. 


PROBLEM   OF    HIGHER   FECUNDITY 


97 


PRODUCTION  IN  FIRST  YEAR  OF  LAYING 

Per  cent  laying  200 
eggs  or  more 

1.05 
0.00 
25.58 
22.22 
23.12 


1908-09 

95 

year 

84.7 

218 

Lowest 
6 

1909-10 

28 

121.2 

183 

70 

1910-11 

43 

164.6 

259 

6 

1912-13 

108 

179.2 

268 

3 

1913-14 

160 

176.5 

271 

7 

tions  of  breeding  stock  on  the  basis  of  individual  produc- 
tion. In  the  third  year  the  pullets  were  from  the  original 
stock,  except  that  a  'third  of  the  poorest  layers  were  dis- 
carded at  the  end  of  the  first  year.  This  flock  of  pullets, 
however,  had  not  individual  pedigrees.  The  fourth  year 
records  are  not  given  as  they  were  not  fairly  comparable 
with  those  of  other  years.  In  the  fifth  year  the  pullets, 
108  in  number  were  all  from  pedigreed  high  producers. 


A116 — DAUGHTER  OF  65 
Laid  218  eggs. 


D172,  GRANDDAUGHTER  OF  65 
Laid  221  eggs. 


98  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  average  production  of  the  dams  was  202  eggs  in  a 
year.  Their  sires  were  from  dams,  one  with  record  of  218 
eggs,  the  other  169.  In  the  sixth  year  there  were  160  pul- 
lets which  averaged  176.5.  Their  dams  averaged  187.9, 
sires'  dams  219.8  and  dams'  dams  211.7.  Hens  that  died 
are  eliminated  in  the  calculation  for  each  year. 

No  "new  blood"  was  introduced  during  the  six  years, 
but  inbreeding  was  avoided.     The  parent  stock  was  selected 


A122— MOTHER 


Laid  259  eggs  in  a  year.  Some  of  her  daughters  and  granddaughte 
shown  on  following  pages.  All  of  medium  size  and,  with  one  exct 
are  short  in  body. 


rs   are 
exception, 


each  year  on  the  basis  of  trapnest  records,  no  attention 
being  paid  to  shape  or  type.  The  breeding  fowls,  however, 
represented  fairly  well  the  general  characteristics  of  the 
breed. 

"Were  further  evidence  needed  as  to  the  inheritance  of 
fecundity  it  is  brought  out  in  the  table  on  p.  102  compiled 
from  the  Oregon  experiments,  in  which  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  progeny  of  selected  high  layers  produced  207.3  eggs  per 
hen,  while  the  progeny  of  selected  poor  layers  averaged 
138.1  eggs.  Male  X  of  unknown  ancestry,  mated  to  poor 


PROBLEM   OF   HIGHER   FECUNDITY 


\  B 


C146— 209  Eggs 


D84— 236  Eggs 


D90— 240  Eggs 


D177— 268  Eggs 


A  FAMILY  OF  HIGH    PRODUCERS— DAUGHTERS   AND 
GRANDDAUGHTERS   OF  A122 


100 


POULTRY   BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


D118— 233   Eggs  D119 — 209  Eggs 

GRANDDAUGHTERS  OF  A122 


A77— 214  Eggs 
A  GOOD   TYPE   OF   PLYMOUTH   ROCK   AND   A   PRODUCER   OF 

GOOD  LAYERS 
Three  daughters  on  opposite  page,  and  two  granddaughters  on  page   102. 


PROBLEM   OF 


101 


layers,  produced  daughters 
that  averaged  117.1  eggs 
each.  Mated  to  good  layers 
the  daughters  averaged  179.7 
eggs.  The  same  result  is 
shown  in  the  case  of  the  sire 
whose  dam  laid  218  eggs. 

Selection  and  Cross  Breed- 
ing. -  -  Is  the  problem  of 
higher  fecundity  a  question 
of  selection  altogether,  or  is 
it  a  question  of  constitutional 
vigor  alone?  Does  the  work 
of  the  breeder  begin  and  end 
with  selection,  or  does  it  begin 

and  end  with  vigor  in  the  stock  ?  It  is  well  known  that  many 
strains  of  pure  breeds,  due  to  close  breeding  or  other  causes, 
lack  in  vigor.  It  is  also  known  that  crossing  two  breeds  or 
varieties  will  restore  the  vigor  lost  by  close  breeding,  and 


A 


D39— 270  Eggs 


C58— 205  Eggs  D74— 244  Eggs 

DAUGHTERS   OF  A77 


102  POULTRY 


AND   MANAGEMENT 


D52— 214   Eggs  D106— 225  Eggs 

GRANDDAUGHTERS  OF  A77   (on  page  100) 


EGG  PRODUCTION  OP  PULLETS  FROM  BOTH  GOOD  AND 
POOR   LAYING   ANCESTORS 

Year        »amslaM        Number    Sire'S.^am  Dauffhters         Number 
first  year  laid 


1912-13 
1912-13 
1913-14 
1911-12 


Average 


1911-12 
1912-13 
1912-13 
1912-13 
1913-14 
1913-14 


20 

1 

169 

144.4 

74 

1 

218 

136.5 

91.9 

7 

20 

156.1 

122 

2 

* 

117.1 

138.1 

215.5 

2 

* 

179.7 

187.7 

9 

218 

185.2 

226 

229 

215.6 

402$ 

1 

402^ 

187 

385:): 

11 

204 

223.7 

211.8 

4 

259 

185.5 

207.3 

Average 


*Male  is  of  unknown  pedigree. 
^Two  years'  record. 


67 

32 

3 

50 

28 


PROBLEM  OF   HIGHER   FECUNDITY  103 

this  is  accomplished  in  one  cross.  Experiments  at  the 
Oregon  Station  showed  that  crossing  Barred  Plymouth 
Rocks  and  White  Leghorns  gave  a  decided  increase  in  yield, 
but  a  still  more  decided  increase  was  obtained  by  following 
up  the  crossing  with  selection.  Crossing  alone  was  not  suf- 
ficient, Only  by  high  constitutional  vigor,  aided  by  selec- 
tion, can  the  highest  production  be  secured. 

WHITE  LEGHORNS  FIRST  YEAR,  CROSSES  IN  SUBSEQUENT  YEARS 
PRODUCTION  FIRST  YEAR  OF  LAYING 

Per  cent  laying 
Tear        hens  year  Hig1iefit          L°West          ^0  eggs  or 

1908-09  50  106.9  183  2  0.00 

1909-10  63  135.6  211  14  4.76 

1910-11  39  149.5  257  28  15.38 

1912-13  23  218.2  303  124  69.52 

1913-14  50  223.7  278  92  70.60 

In  these  experiments  50  pure-bred  White  Leghorns  aver- 
aging 106.9  eggs  were  crossed  promiscuously  with  Barred 
Plymouth  Rocks  that  averaged  84.6  eggs.  The  cross-breds 
in  the  first  generation  averaged  135.6  eggs.  Breeding  them 
back  to  pure-bred  Leghorns  the  pullets  with  three-fourths 
Leghorn  blood,  averaged  149.5.  In  the  latter  flock  of  cross- 
bred hens,  those  with  records  averaging  208  eggs  were  se- 
lected for  breeding.  Five  of  them  were  mated  to  males 
from  a  Leghorn  hen  with  record  of  229  in  her  first  year 
and  407  in  two  years.  Three  were  mated  to  a  cross-bred 
male  of  three-fourths  Leghorn  blood  whose  dam  laid  402 
eggs  in  two  years.  The  daughters  from  these  matings 
averaged  218.2  eggs,  one  of  them  laying  303  eggs.  In  the 
next  year  (breeding  females  of  the  same  grade  were  used — 
three-fourths  Leghorn  blood,  average  production  385  eggs 
per  hen  in  two  years,  dams'  dam  402  eggs  in  two  years. 
These  were  mated  to  a  pure-bred  Barred  Rock  male  whose 
dam  laid  204  eggs  in  one  year  and  sire's  dam  218.  The 


PROBLEM   OF   HIGHER   FECUNDITY 


105 


resulting  flock  of  50  pullets — five-eighths  Barred  Rock  and 
three-eighths  Leghorn  blood — averaged  223.7  eggs. 

These  and  other  results  secured  by  the  writer  at  the 
Oregon  Station  indicate  clearly  not  only  that  high  egg-lay- 
ing is  transmitted,  but  that  vigor  and  selection  are  both 


D166— 217  Eggs 


D34— 234  Eggs 


Eggs  D5— 233  Eggs 

GRANDDAUGHTERS  OF  A79 


106  POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

necessary  if  the  highest  results  are  to  be  secured  in  pro- 
duction. 

It  should  not  be  assumed  from,  this  experiment  that 
crossing  of  different  breeds  is  always  necessary  to  secure 
vigor.  The  same  result  may  be  secured  by  crossing  different 
strains  of  the  same  breed,  in  other  words  by  outcrossing. 

Mode  of  inheritance. — Granting  that  the  fact  of  trans- 
mission of  high  egg-laying  has  been  demonstrated,  there 
remains  the  further  question  as  to  the  mode  of  inheritance. 
Does  it  come  about  all  at' once  according  to  the  Mendelian 
law  of  dominance  and  recessiveness,  or  is  it  an  achievement 
that  comes  bit  by  bit  after  years  of  patient  selective  breed- 
ing? Is  high  egg  production  a  sex-limited  affair  in  its  in- 
heritance? Is  it  inherited  from  the  dam  and  dam  alone, 
or  does  it  come  through  the  sire  and  sire  alone  ? 

So  far  as  the  Oregon  investigations  have  gone,  the  results 
do  not  bear  a  Mendelian  interpretation.  They  do  not  show 
that  high  egg  production  is  either  dominant  or  recessive  to 
low  production.  When  high  producers  were  mated  to  sons 
of  high  producers  the  daughters  were  neither  all  high  nor 
all  low  producers.  Mating  high  producers  together,  the 
daughters  did  not  equal  the  production  of  the  parents  on 
the  average.  When  low  producers  were  mated  the  daugh- 
ters did  not  take  after  either  or  both  of  the  parents,  but 
showed  a  higher  egg  production  than  the  dams  or  sires' 
dams.  In  the  one  case  there  is  a  pulling  down,  in  the  other 
a  pulling  up  to  a  general  level.  Apparently  the  daughters 
do  not  take  the  characteristics  of  the  mother  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  sire's  mother,  or  the  reverse. 

It  appears  as  though  high  egg  production  is  the  accumu- 
lated result  of  the  selection  of  high  production  breeding 
stock  carried  on  for  many  generations.  The  breeder,  how- 
ever, will  make  rapid  progress  in  reaching  the  high  standard 
in  proportion  as  he  is  successful  in  identifying  the  excep- 


PROBLEM  OF  HIGHER  FECUNDITY 


107 


tional  individuals  that 
possess  in  a  high  degree 
the  power  of  transmit- 
ting desired  characteris- 
tics to  their  offspring. 

Is  High  Fecundity 
Sex-Limited. — In  other 
words,  is  high  fecundity 
inherited  through  the 
sire  alone,  or  from,  the 
dam  alone?  This  ques- 
tion has  been  the  subject 
of  investigation  by  Doc- 
tor Pearl  of  the  Maine 
Station,  and  his  con- 
clusions are  given  in 
these  words  (Maine  Bul- 
letin 205 )  :  ' '  High  fecundity  may  be  inherited  by  daughters 
from  their  sire,  independent  of  the  dam."  .  .  .  "High 
fecundity  is  not  inherited  by  daughters  from  their  dams. ' ' 


WHITE  LEGHORN  HEN  O34 


229   e 
years. 
Station. 


;   in  first  year,    786  eggs  in   five 
wo     daughters     below.       Oregon 


B12  251  eggs  in   1  year  C551  607  eggs  in  3  years 

DAUGHTERS   OF  O34 


108  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


OREGONA— OREGON  STATION  WHITE  LEGHORN  HEN  A27 

987  eggs  in  five  years.  At  beginning  of  sixth  year  had  laid  more  than  1,000 
eggs.  The  greatest  Icng-distance  trapnest  record  known:  first  year,  240  eggs; 
second  year,  222  eggs;  third  year,  202  eggs;  fourth  year,  155  eggs;  fifth  year, 
168  eggs. 


.  .  .  "A  low  degree  of  fecundity  may  be  inherited  from 
either  sire  or  dam."  To  state  Doctor  Pearl's  conclusions 
in  another  way :  High  fecundity  may  be  inherited  from  the 
sire,  or  may  not.  In  other  words,  some  sires  will  transmit 
this  characteristic  and  some  will  not.  Whether  nine  in  ten, 
or  one  in  a  hundred  have  this  power,  we  are  not  informed, 
and  Doctor  Pearl  does  not  presume  to  know.  Breeders 
therefore  will  not  be  misled  into  the  belief  that  all  males 
have  the  power  of  transmitting  the  egg-laying  characteris- 
tics of  their  dams.  Pearl,  however,  is  definite  when  he  says 


PROBLEM   OF   HIGHER   FECUNDITY  109 

that  "high  fecundity  is  not  inherited  by  daughters  from 
their  dams." 

The  Oregon  experiments  which  have  shown  a  remarkable 
increase  in  production,  with  strong  evidence  that  it  was 
due  to  selective  breeding,  do  not  appear  to  show  that  it 
came  in  a  sex-limited  way.  They  show,  on,  the  average, 
that  both  sire  and  dam  exert  an  influence,  but  that  the  in- 
fluence is  not  confined  to  the  immediate  parents.  It  is  true 
that  some  males,  as  well  as  females,  have  a  greater  pre- 
potency or  power  of  transmitting  fecundity  than  others, 
but  it  cannot  be  said,  so  far  as  these  experiments  have  gone, 
that  it  comes  only  from  "one  side  of  the  house."  Table 
on  p.  102  may  be  studied  in  this  connection. 

Progression  and  Regression. — The  production  of  the 
progeny  never  reaches  that  of  the  parent  stock  when  the  egg 
production  of  the  parents  exceeds  the  average  of  their 
generation.  There  is,  however,  a  progressive  increase  each 
year  when  the  parents  have  been  selected  among  the  indi- 
viduals that  have  production  records  higher  than  the 
average  of  the  flock.  (See  table  p.  Ill  Oregon  Station  ex- 
periments.) This  is  the  principle  or  law  of  progression. 

There  is  another  principle  or  law  operating  in  the  other 
direction ;  that  is  regression.  There  will  be  regression  or  a 
decrease  in  production  unless  the  breeding  stock  be  selected 
among  the  highest  producers.  When  no  selection  of  any 
kind  is  practiced,  the  tendency  is  downward.  The  average 
of  all  the  ancestry  is  pulling  backward.  Selection  is  neces- 
sary if  the  breeder  is  to  do  no  more  than  maintain  the 
standard  of  production.  He  cannot  "rest  upon  his 
laurels"  without  going  backward.  He  must  select  and 
continue  to  select. 

Variability  versus  Uniformity. — High  excellence  is  not 
correlated  with  uniformity  of  production,  as  the  Oregon 
experiments  show  (page  111).  Breed  improvement  does 


110  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

not  mean  that  all  individuals  of  the  flock  are  bred  up  to 
the  same  level  of  production.  It  is  not  a  leveling  process. 
The  gulf  between  the  high  and  the  low  individuals  is  not 
bridged  by  selective  breeding.  The  experiments  indicate 
that  breed  improvement,  so  far  as  egg  production  is  con- 
cerned, means  the  raising  of  the  standard  of  production  of 
the  individual.  In  other  words,  variability  does  not  de- 
crease with  improvement  in  production.  There  are  fewer 
poor  layers  as  a  result  of  selection  and  more  good  ones,  but 
the  range  between  the  high  and  the  low  remains  practically 
the  same.  In  the  case  of  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  the 
mean  of  production  moved  up  from  between  61  and  80  in 
the  first  year  to  between  161  and  180  in  the  sixth  year. 
In  the  case  of  the  Leghorns  and  crosses,  practically  the  same 
law  is  shown. 

Breed  improvement,  therefore,  depends  upon  raising  the 
mean  or  average  production  at  the  same  time  as  the  maxi- 
mum production  is  raised.  This  is  what  happened  in  the 
Oregon  experiments.  The  maximum  individual  production 
was  raised  each  year  while  the  average  of  the  flock  was  also 
raised.  As  the  average  production  of  the  flock  is  raised, 
the  probabilities  are  that  individual  high  records  will  in- 
crease in  like  manner.  The  true  breeder,  therefore,  will 
ignore  a  fixed  standard  of  production  and  breed  for  a  pro- 
gressive increase,  and  no  one  can  yet  say  what  the  maximum 
production  of  the  hen  is.  (See  page  111.) 

Hen's  Potential  Capacity. — That  the  conditions  under 
which  a  hen  lives  affect  her  egg  yield  and  determine,  in  a 
measure  at  least,  her  degree  of  fecundity,  is  a  truth  dis- 
cussed elsewhere.  This  is  supported  by  investigations 
made  by  Pearl  as  to  the  number  of  oocytes  (eggs)  in  the 
hen's  ovary.  It  is  apparently  not  from  lack  of  eggs  or 
oocytes  in  the  hen  that  the  egg  yield  is  low,  for  the  count 


PROBLEM   OF    HIGHER   FECUNDITY 

BARRED    PLYMOUTH    ROCK    HENS    GROUPED    ACCORDING   TO 
PRODUCTION,     SHOWING    PROGRESSIVE     INCREASE 


J.V    C*/M  L/C  /      t// 

ev/#s  laid 

1908-09 

1909-10 

1910-11 

1912-13 

1913-14 

1-20 

1 

.  . 

2 

1 

1 

21-40 

6 

.  . 

41-60 

19 

1 

61-80 

27 

5 

1 

2 

81-100 

17 

3 

.  . 

1 

6 

101-120 

11 

8 

4 

11 

121-140 

7 

6 

8 

"  10 

15 

141-160 

4 

o 

6 

15 

22 

161-180 

1 

3 

9 

27 

41 

181-200 

1 

1 

6 

27 

26 

201-220 

1 

9 

14 

18 

221-240 

.  . 

1 

7 

11 

241-260 

.  . 

.  . 

.  . 

1 

4 

261-280 

.  . 

1 

3 

281-303 

•• 

•• 

•• 

Total  hens 

95 

.  28 

43 

108 

160 

HENS  GROUPED  ACCORDING  TO  PRODUCTION 

SHOWING 

PROGRES- 

SIVE  INCREASE 

(First 

year,  White 

Leghorn  hens; 

subsequent 

years,  Crosses.) 

Number  of 
eggs  laid 

1908-09 

1909-10 

1910-11 

1912-13 

1913-14 

1-20 

3 

o 

21-40 

2 

1 

.  . 

41-60 

1 

.  . 

61-80 

6 

o 

.  . 

81-100 

8 

6 

3 

1 

101-120 

9 

15 

4 

121-140 

9 

16 

5 

1 

.  . 

141-160 

5 

9 

6 

1 

1 

161-180 

5 

8 

12 

1 

4 

181-200 

1 

5 

3 

5 

6 

201-220 

2 

2 

7 

16 

221-240 

2 

6 

241-260 

.  . 

1 

2 

9 

261-280 

.  . 

2 

7 

281-303 

. 

.  . 

.  . 

2 

.  . 

Total  hens  50  63  .  39  23  50 


112  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

showed  in  some  cases,  even  in  poor  laying  hens,  the  presence 
of  over  2,000  oocytes. 

So  far  as  the  number  of  eggs  in  the  ovary  is  concerned, 
hens  are  all  "born"  with  the  inherited  tendency  to  lay. 
The  lowest  number  in  any  one  hen,  as  reported  in  Maine 
Bulletin  205,  was  914;  the  greatest  number  3,605.  By 
using  a  low-power  dissecting  lens  to  aid  the  eye,  the  enor- 
mous number  of  13,476  oocytes  were  counted  in  one  hen's 
ovary. 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  ovary  of  the  hen,  even 
before  she  lays  any  eggs,  contains  all  the  eggs,  called 
oocytes,  that  she  will  ever  lay.  More  than  that,  she  has 
many  times  more  eggs  than  she  will  ever  lay.  Why  doesn  't 
she  lay  them?  That  is  the  problem.  Is  it  a  lack  of  in- 
herited ability  to  lay,  or  is  it  because  of  improper  feeding 
and  care  ?  Is  it  the  business  of  the  poultryman  to  so  mate 
his  fowls  that  the  ability  to  lay  the  greatest  possible  number 
of  eggs  will,  in  some  manner,  be  transmitted  from  parent 
to  offspring?  Or  is  it  his  business  to  so  feed  and  house 
the  hen,  in  other  words  put  her  under  such  favorable  en- 
vironment, that  she  will  empty  her  egg  reservoir,  so  to 
speak,  during  her  natural  laying  life 

The  poultryman  who  is  gifted,  however,  with  the  faculty 
of  using  common  sense,  will  not  neglect  either  the  breeding, 
the  feeding  or  the  care  and  expect  to  get  the  largest  possible 
egg  yield.  A  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  the  hen  has  a  po- 
tential possibility  of  several  thousand  eggs,  strongly  empha- 
sizes the  importance  of  environmental  factors,  in  other 
words,  good  feeding,  proper  housing  and  care. 

Actual  Limit  of  Production. — Before  the  count  of  the 
oocytes  had  been  made  the  idea  was  somewhat  prevalent 
that  600  eggs  was  the  limit  of  production  of  a  hen.  This 
theory  seems  to  have  originated  with  a  French  writer  named 
Geyelin,  who  said:  "It  has  been  ascertained  that  the 


PROBLEM   OF    HIGHER   FECUNDITY 


113 


ovarium  of  a  fowl  is  composed  of  600  ovula  or  eggs ;  there- 
fore a  hen  during  the  whole  of  her  life  cannot  possibly  lay 
more  eggs  than  600,  which  in  a  natural  course  are  distribu- 
ted over  nine  years  in  the  following  proportion.*' 

This  has  been  abundantly  disproved  by  trapnest  records. 
At  the  Utah  station,  prior  to  1905,  a  number  of  egg  records 


B42—  CROSS-BRED     HEN,     LEG- 

HORN   BLOOD   PREDOMI- 

NATING 


A60—  CROSS-BRED  HEN,  H  LEGHORN 
AND  y   PLYMOUTH  ROCK 


Laid    834   eggs    in    four   years    at 
Oregon    Station.      A   world's    record 
for     four    years.       First    year,     228     816    eggs    in    four    years    and    958    eggs    in 
eggs;    second  year,    250    eggs;    third  five  years. 

year,     184    eggs;    fourth    year,     172 
eggs. 

were  secured  exceeding  the  600-egg  limit  in  less  than  four 
years  of  laying.  (Bulletin  92,  by  the  writer.)  Since  then 
one  hen  has  laid  816  eggs  in  five  years.  At  the  Oregon  sta- 
tion the  writer  has  secured  many  records  exceeding  600 
eggs.(  In  one  case  664  eggs  were  laid  in  three  years,  and 
819  in  four  years  by  the  same  hen.  In  her  fifth  year  she 
reached  a  total  of  987  eggs.  At  the  beginning  of  her  sixth 
year  she  passed  the  1,000-egg  mark.  Another  laid  958  in  five 


114  POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

years.  Remarkable  are  the  records  of  hens,  B42  which  has 
laid  834-  in  four  years,  arid  of  B14,  827  in  four  years. 
If  they  continue  in  their  present  condition  of  health,  all 
these  hens  should  next  year  reach  and  pass  the  1,000-egg 
mark.  These  are  the  highest  authenticated  four-  and  five- 
year  records  known. 

Long  Distance  Laying. — Some  idea  of  the  possible  limit 
of  production  is  given  in  the  following  table,  which  records 
the  egg  yield  of  12  sisters  at  the  Oregon  Station  for  three 
years : 


Hen  No.     First  year    Second  year     Third  year  Totaled 

B4  217  214  172  603 

B8  246  160  159  565 

B13  206  226  206  638 

B14  215  206  208  629 

B170  226  220  177  623 

B177  193  212 

B213  198        '  224  230  652 

B222  188  199  231  618 

C425  235  199 

C543  291  150 

H81L  161  194  138  493 

H53N  168  196  173  537 


Average  211.1  200  188.23  593.3 

Dam's  record:  First  year,  200  eggs;  second  year,  202. 
These  hens  laid  an  average  of  211.1  eggs  in  their  first 
year,  200  in  their  second  year,  and  the  remaining  nine  hens 
in  their  third  year  averaged  188.23.  The  total  average  pro- 
duction for  the  three  years  was  595.3  eggs  each.  The  dam 
of  these  pullets  laid  as  many  eggs  the  -second  year  as  the 
first,  and  it  would  appear  that  this  characteristic  in  the 
dam  was  transmitted  to  the  daughters  in  a  noticeable 
degree. 

The  high  limit  of  production  is  further  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing compilation  from  the  Oregon  experiments. 


PROBLEM  OF  HIGHER  FECUNDITY 


OTHER        LONG-DISTANCE        EGG    RECORDS 


115 


Hen 

First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth  Fifth  Sixth 

Dam's 

No. 

year 

year 

year 

year   year   year 

Total 

record 

B12 

251 

152 

.. 

403 

229 

0551 

214 

203 

190 

607 

229 

H81N 

142 

224 

179 

.  .     .  . 

545 

229 

B2 

223 

203 

188 

.  . 

614 

155 

0457 

250 

175 

.  . 

425 

0459 

261 

191 

•  .  . 

.  . 

452 

0463 

232 

202 

.  . 

.  . 

434 

B42 

228 

250 

184 

172 

834 

034 

229 

178 

140 

144     95      6 

792 

A27 

240 

222 

202 

155    168 

987 

.  . 

A60 

177 

234 

226 

179 

816 

0504 

243 

178 

.  . 

.  . 

421 

240 

0515 

241 

182 

423 

240 

0589 

211 

204 

415 

240 

0516 

267 

174 

441 

215  ' 

0519 

272 

182 

.  . 

454 

205 

0552 

217 

185 

.  . 

402 

209 

0483 

265 

145 

410 

177 

0512 

217 

217 

.  . 

434 

177 

0490 

231 

216 

.  . 

447 

257 

0521 

303 

209 

168 

679 

201 

0547 

250 

225 

214 

.  . 

689 

201 

090 

215 

188 

.  . 

403 

191 

Average  233.86    197.34    188       159.33  212.2 

Laying  Longevity. — The  more  important  point  brought 
out  in  these  long  distance  records,  however,  is  the  evidence 
that  the  period  of  longevity,  or  the  profitable  laying  period, 
may  be  considerably  lengthened.  The  third  year  record  of 
the  12  sisters — 188.2  eggs — is  remarkably  good  laying  for 
first  year  hens  or  pullets,  and  considerably  higher  than  the 
average  flock  of  pullets.  The  average  or  unimproved  flock 
of  hens  does  not  pay  for  its  keep  after  the  second  year  when 
eggs  are  sold  for  market  purposes.  If  by  proper  breeding 
this  period  could  be  lengthened  to  four  years,  it  would 
mean  that  once  in  four  years,  instead  of  once  in  two  years, 
the  flock  would  need  to  be  renewed,  thus  cutting  out  half 


PROBLEM  OF  HIGHER  FECUNDITY 


117 


V  W  V 


THREE  CORNELL  LONG-DISTANCE  LAYERS 

Cornell  Supreme,  665  eggs;  Lady  Cornell,  648  eggs;   Madam  Cornell,  539  eggs 
in  three  years. 

of  the  great  cost  of  incubating  and  rearing  the  chicks.  The 
first  result  would  be  a  reduction  of  the  number  of  market 
chickens,  as  with  half  the  number  hatched  there  would  be 
half  the  number  of  surplus  cockerels  and  half  the  number  of 
hens  sold.  But  poultry  producers  would  find  a  better 
market  for  meat  chickens,  the  production  of  which  would 
develop  into  a  more  specialized  industry. 


LADY     MACDUFF 

Oregon  Station  hen  CS21.  Photograph 
taken  day  after  she  laid  her  303d  egg.  The 
world's  greatest  layer  so  far  as  authentic 
trap-nest  records  show.  She  laid  303  eggs 
in  12  months;  512  eggs  in  24  months;  679 
eggs  in  36  months. 


THE  303d  EGG  OF  LADY 
MACDUFF 

Weight  of  first  year's  eggs 
approximately  42  pounds. 
Her  three  years'  production. 
95  pounds.  Weight  of  hen,  5 
pounds. 


118 


POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 


LADY  MACDUFF  AND   10  DAUGHTERS 

The  daughters  averaged  250  eggs  in  year. 

Highest  Annual  Records.  —  The  table  on  page  120  gives 
the  highest  official  individual  records.  They  may  be  consid- 
ered world's  records,  so  far  as  official  reports  have  been  pub- 
lished.* They  were  all  secured  at  the  Oregon  Station. 

*One  exception  should  be  made.  Lady  Showyou  (p.  121)  made  her 
record  of  281  eggs  in  her  second  year  at  Missouri. 

Pedigree  ofC5dl 


and 


Flock     Average 
106.9  eqqs 


PEDIGREE  OF  LADY   MACDUFF 


Qrajon  Experiment  5taf/'oa 


120  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

No.  o 

First  laying  year  (1912-13),  Hen  C521 303 

Second  laying  year  (1912-13),  Hen  B42 250 

Third  laying  year  (1913-14),  Hen  B222 231 

Fourth  laying  year  (1913-14),  Hen  B14 198 

For  two  years  (1912-14),  Hen  C521 512 

For  three  years  (1912-15) ,  Hen  C547 689 

For  four  years  (1911-15),  Hen  B42 834 

For  five  years  (1910-15),  Hen  A27 987 

Type  in  Layers. — There  are  certain  characteristics  that 
are  present  in  the  good  layer  and  absent  in  the  poor — not 
always,  but  on  the  average. 

Weight  Correlated  with  Laying  Capacity. — It  has  been 
found  that  within  the  breed  or  variety  the  heavier  pro- 
ducers on  the  average  are  those  of  lighter  weight.  Some- 
times some  of  the  heavy  hens  are  heavy  producers,  but  this 
is  not  true  of  the  average.  At  the  Oregon  Station  a  pen  of 
47  Plymouth  Rock  hens  averaged  160.9  eggs.  Separating 
them  according  to  weight  into  three  groups  the  following 
result  was  secured : 


A66— MOTHER    OF    LADY    MACDUFF 

201    eggs   first   year. 


PROBLEM  OF  HIGHER  FECUNDITY 


121 


Production 


Number 

Heavy    10 

Medium    18 

Light    19 


Average  weight 
1  pounds 
6       " 
5        « 


First  y ear  t  Two  years 
141.1  236.1 

163.4  268.5 

173.7  293.5 


The  eleven  heaviest  layers, — those  hens  laying  over  200 
eggs  each — averaged  in  weight  5%  pounds. 

It  would  be  a  serious 
mistake,  however,  to 
select  year  after  year, 
the  smallest  individuals 
for  breeding  purposes 
without  regard  to  other 
considerations.  Vigor 
and  health  must  always 
be  uppermost.  Con- 
tinued selection  of  the 
smallest  would,  in  the 
Leghorn  breed,  for  ex- 
ample, finally  evolve  a 
Bantam  type  so  far  as 
weight  is  concerned.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  a 
mistake  to  pick  out  the 
nice  large  hens  and  the 
nice  heavy  males  and 
save  them  for  breeding, 
better  send  them  to  the 
pot. 

Shape  or  Conformation. — Much,  importance  cannot  be 
attached  to  various  theories  regarding  shape  as  indicative  of 
laying  qualities.  The  good  layer,  however,  is  usually 
medium  to  long  in  body,  and  rather  deep  and  broad.  These 
are  relative  terms  and  subject  to  breed  differences.  Em- 


LADY     SHOWYOU 

White  Plymouth  Rock  hen,  laid  281  e 
in  the    Missouri   Contest   in    1911-12. 
record  was  made  in  her  second  year, 
wide-awake,  active  temperament.     ' 
pounds. 


iff 

Note 
Weight  6 


r-H     W 

.M  bo 
en  <U 


II 


PROBLEM  OF  HIGHER  FECUNDITY 


123 


A122  laid  259  eggs 


A77  laid  214  eggs 


A84  laid     44  eggs 


A94     laid     20  eggs 


THE  UK  AD  INDICATING  LAYING  QUALITY 

Masculinity  is  apparent  in  the  head  of  the  poor  layers.  In  other  words,  the 
poor  layer  has  a  suggestion  of  a  rooster  head.  The  head  is  large,  the  comb 
coarse  and  the  face  fleshy.  (Oregon  Station.) 


124 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


BREEDER   OF   POOR   LAYERS 
A94 — 20  eggs  in  a  year.     (Oregon  Station.) 


phasis  is  placed  on  these 
points  as  indicating  di- 
gestive capacity,  for  the 
heavy  layer  must  have 
good  digestion.  No  great 
reliance,  however,  can  be 
placed  on  shape  of  body 
as  a  method  of  identify- 
ing the  good  layer. 
There  are  good  layers 
with  short  bodies  and 
poor  layers  with  long 
bodies.  (See  Page  93.) 

The  truth  is  that  hens  have  not  been  bred  systematically 

for  high  egg  laying  long  enough  to  fix  or  develop  any  par- 
ticular type  as  it  relates  to  shape. 

The  same  can  be  said  of  the  angle  of  the  tail  and  the 

shape  of  the  comb,  though  preference  should  be  given  to  a 

rather  large  comb  and  a 

tail  carried  rather  high. 

The     head     should     be 

rather    small,    and    leg 

bones  not  too  large.     In 

general    make-up     the 

fowl    should    not    have 

what  might  be  called  a 

beefy    build;    rather,    a 

trim,  muscular  build.   A 

poor  layer  will  usually 

have  at  the  end  of  the 

laying  year  a  better  ap- 
pearance than  one  that 

has  made  a  heavy  rec-  WHITE  LEGHORN  HEN 

Ord.        The     hen     at     the       Laid    1    egg   in   a   year.      (Oregon   Station.) 


PROBLEM  OF   HIGHER  FECUNDITY 


125 


end  of  the  year  that  is 
ragged  in  plumage  and 
wrinkled  in  face — in 
other  words,  one  that 
shows  the  effect  of  hard 
work — is  more  often  the 
one  that  has  been  doing 
the  laying.  The  hen 
that  looks  best  at  the 
end  of  the  year,  in  the 
fall,  is  not  usually  the 
one  that  should  be  kept 
for  breeding. 

Hen  Temperament. — 
The  poultryman  who  is 
a  close  observer  will 


A  GOOD  LAYER  FROM  POOR  LAYING 
STOCK 

Laid  223  eggs.  Dam  laid  142;  dam's 
dam,  74;  sire's  dam,  20.  (Oregon  Sta- 
tion.) 


D33  laid  67  eggs — a  good  poser  but  D7  laid  7  eggs — good  looker  but  poor 

poor  actor.  layer. 


POOR  LAYERS  FROM  GOOD  LAYING  STOCK.     (Oregon   Station.) 


PROBLEM  OF  HIGHER  FECUNDITY 


127 


find  that  temperament  is 
correlated  with  egg-lay- 
ing- qualities.  The  good 
layer  has  an  active,  ner- 
vous temperament.  She 
moves  around  quickly, 
and  is  ' '  on  the  go ' '  more 
than  the  poor  layer.  She 
doesn't  pose  well  either 
in  the  exhibition  coop  or 
before  the  camera.  She 
will  be  found  scratching 
and  hunting  for  food 
after  the  poor  layer  has 
gone  to  roost,  and  she 
will  usually  be  at  work 
early  in  the  morning. 

First   Year's  Production  the 


WHITE    LEGHORN    HEN    E248 

302  eggs  in  a  year;  dam  C516;  sire's  dam, 
Oregona. 


WHITE   LEGHORN    HEN    C516 

267  eggs  in  a  year;  421  eggs  in  two  years. 
Note  high  tail  and  erect  comb.  Mother  of 
E248  (302  eggs)  and  other  good  layers. 
(Oregon  Station.) 


Best. — Where  fowls  are 
kept  under  the  same  con- 
ditions each  year  and 
come  to  laying  maturity 
in  the  fall,  the  produc- 
tion in  the  first  or  pullet 
year  will  exceed,  on  the 
average,  the  production 
of  any  subsequent  year. 
Occasional  individuals 
lay  more  the  second  than 
the  first  year,  but  this  is 
exceptional.  The  pro- 
duction of  a  flock  of 
fowls  in  the  first  and 
second  years  is  shown 


128  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


Laid  44  eggs.  Laid  79  eggs. 

TWO  POOR  LAYERS 
Note   heavy,    coarse    build.       (Oregon    Station.) 


Laid  104     eggs.  Laid   190  eggs. 

UTAH  STATION  WYANDOTTES 
Note  the  business  appearance   of  the   one  and  absence   of  it  in   the  other. 


PROBLEM  OF   HIGHER  FECUNDITY  129 


NEW  ZEALAND  WHITE  LEGHORNS 

Winners  in   the   British   Columbia   laying  contest    1913-14,  averaged   221.7    eggs 
in   11   months. 


WHITE  WYANDOTTES 

Averaged  208.5   eggs  in  the   Storrs   1913-14   contest.     Owned  by  Tom  Barren, 
England.     Note  absence  of  the  blocky  type  demanded  by  the  "Standard." 

on  page  131.  There  were  43  fowls  in  the  flock.  Among 
the  21  making  the  best  record  for  the  two  years,  it  is  seen 
that  only  two  of  them  laid  less  than  the  average  of  153  in 
the  first  year.  Among  the  22  of  the  poorest  layers  for  the 
second  year,  only  five  laid  more  than  the  average  in  the 
first  year.  If  those  laying  less  than  153  in  the  first  year— 
18  in  number — had  been  killed  off  at  the  end  of  the  first 


130  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 


WHITE    LEGHORNS 

Averaged    208.8   eggs    in    the    Storrs    1913-14    Competition.      (Owned    by    F.    F. 
Lincoln,  Connecticut.) 


WHITE  LEGHORNS 

Winning    pen     in    the     Panama-Pacific     International     egg-laying    competition. 
(Owned  by  Oregon  Agricultural  College.) 

year,  the  average  for  the  two  years  of  the  25  remaining 
would  be  320.6  instead  of  283.5  as  the  average  of  the  whole 
flock.  The  18  poorest  averaged  in  the  second  year  92. 
The  25  best  averaged  158  eggs  in  their  second  year. 

The  unprofitable  hens  in  the  first  year  are,  therefore,  on 
the  average,  unprofitable  in  the  second  year.     Knowing 


PROBLEM  OF  HIGHER  FECUNDITY 


131 


THE  LONG  AND  THE  SHORT  WAY 

In  breeding  for  eggs   slower  progress   is  made   in   reaching  the   goal  if  various 
other  points  are  bred  for  at  the  same  time. 

the  production  of  each  hen  in  the  first  year  it  is  good  busi- 
ness to  kill  off  the  poor  layers  at  the  end  of  that  year. 
Further  corroborative  data  are  given  on  this  subject  in 
chapter  on  incubation. 


RECORD  OF  A  FLOCK  OF  43  FOWLS 

At  the   Oregon   Station   for  two  years,  showing  that,    on  the  average,  the  best 
layers  in  the  first  year  maintain  the  distinction  in  the  second. 


132         •  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 


Measure  of  Hen's  Laying  Capacity. — The  egg  record 
in  the  first  three  months'  laying  (November,  December, 
January)  will  enable  the  poultryman  to  pick  out  the  hens 
that  will,  on  the  average,  prove  to  be  the  best  layers 
during  the  year.  If  the  poultryman  will  trapnest  his 
fowls  during  those  three  months,  he  will  find  that  the 
hens  that  lay  30  eggs  or  more  in  those  months  will  lay 
during  the  year  about  200  eggs.  These  should  be  kept 
for  breeders.  Those  that  lay  less  than  10  or  12  will, 


^JSP 

HENS 

AVERAGE  PRODUCTION  PER  HEN 
FOR  FIRST  TWELVE  MONTHS  OP  LAYING 

Nt 

&*. 

IOTAI 

NOV.  DEC.  JAN. 

BALANCE  OP  YEAR 

nfiPfc 

101  -  ZOO 

OVER  £00 

15 
161 
36 

&5 
5&J 

SI 
160.7 
BU 

19.2 

4.2 

s 

16.6 

OREGON  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

GOOD  FALL  AND  WINTER  PRODUCERS  THE  BEST  LAYERS 

on  the  average,  prove  to  be  unprofitable,  and  should 
be  disposed  of.  Those  that  lay  20  may  make  a  profit.  The 
above  conclusions  are  based  on  the  Oregon  experiments, 
which  are  shown  above  in  detail. 

Early  Laying  Maturity  Characteristic. — Summarizing 
the  Oregon  Station  records,  it  was  found  that  pullets  that 
began  to  lay  under  200  days  of  age  (approximately  6^ 
months),  laid  on  the  average  about  200  eggs  in  the  year.  As 
this  age  advanced  the  number  of  eggs  laid  decreased.  This 
is  shown  graphically  on  page  133.  "With  or  without  the  aid 
of  a  trapnest,  the  poultryman,  by  observing  the  date  the 
first  egg  is  laid,  may  pick  out  the  pullets  that  will  lay  the 
best  throughout  the  year.  If  the  pullets  have  been  hatched 


PROBLEM  OF  HIGHER  FECUNDITY 


133 


in  March  and  April,  and  begin  to  lay  in  less  than  200  days 
of  age,  they  will  prove  to  be,  on  the  average,  200-egg  layers. 
These  should  be  marked  and  kept  for  breeders.  Those  that 
do  not  lay  till  300  days  of  age  should  be  killed  off  im- 
mediately or  sold  for  market.  There  are  exceptions,  but  on 
the  average  it  works  this  way. 

EGG-LAYING   ORGANS 

The  egg-laying  organs  of  the  hen  are  the  ovary  and  ovi- 
duct.   Originally  eggs  were  laid  only  that  chicks  might  be 


ACE. 

SfcGAN 
TO     LAY 
(IN  DAYS)' 

HE 

'IT.C 

AVERAGE,  PRODUCTION  PE.R  HEN 
POR  FIRST  TWELVE:  MONTHS  OP  LAYIN.C 

THAN   200 
201-250 
251     300 
OVER  300 

23 
156 
65 

20 

SI 
511 
Z4.fe 
7.6 

1370 
H) 
VK 

112.7 

UM 
37 

ZB.SJ 

m 

153 

» 

DM! 

OREGON  EXPERIMENT  JtATIOH 

THE  FIRST  LAYERS  THE  BEST   LAYERS 

hatched  from  them;  in  other  words,  the  purpose  was  re- 
production. Later,  when  it  was  found  that  eggs  were  good 
to  eat,  egg-laying  became  a  productive  as  well  as  reproduc- 
tive process.  They  were  to  be  used  for  food  as  well  as  for 
producing  young,  and  it  would  be  proper  to  call  them  pro- 
ductive organs  as  well  as  reproductive  organs. 

The  ovary  lies  at  the  forward  end  of  the  kidney  attached 
to  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  body  cavity.  The  ova  or  eggs  may 
be  seen  hanging  like  a  bunch  of  grapes,  though  some  are 
larger  and  some  smaller  than  grapes.  Some  are  so  small 
as  to  be  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  From  that  they 
vary  in  size  to  the  fully  formed  egg  yolk.  Each  ovum  or 


134 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


Average        97.2, 


aqe 


129.6 


INHERITANCE  OF  EGG  PRODUCTION,  SHOWN  DIAGRAMMATICALLY 
These  diagrams  show  the  production  of  four  flocks  in  four  different  years. 
Flock  4  is  the  pullet  progeny  of  the  best  layers  in  flocks  1,  2  and  3.  The  hen 
numbers  are  given  at  the  left  and  the  eggs  laid  by  each  at  the  right.  The 
dam  is  represented  by  the  same  line  or  symbol  as  the  daughters,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  black  lines,  where  the  ancestry  of  pullets  is  not  given.  A  son  of 
034  was  sire  of  all  pullets  except  the  daughters  of  250,  this  hen  being  inbred 
to  her  son. 


PROBLEM  OF  HIGHER  FECUNDITY 


135 


A6 


Average     .212. 2. 


INHERITANCE  OF  EGG  PRODUCTION,  SHOWN  DIAGRAMMATICALLY 

These  diagrams  shows  the  production  of  four  flocks  in  four  different  years. 
Flock  4  is  the  pullet  progeny  of  the  best  layers  in  flocks  1,  2  and  3.  The  hen 
numbers  are  given  at  the  left  and  the  eggs  laid  by  each  at  the  right.  The 
dam  is  represented  by  the  same  line  or  symbol  as  the  daughters,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  black  lines,  where  the  ancestry  of  pullets  is  not  given.  A  son  of 
034  was  sire  of  all  pullets  except  the  daughters  of  250,  this  hen  being  inbred 
to  her  son. 


136  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


EGG  ORGANS  OF  THE  HEN 


1.  Ovary — Young  follicles  or 
2,  3,  4 — Larger  follicles.  5 — Ovum  or 
egg  yolk  in  upper  part  of  oviduct.  6 — 
Part  of  the  oviduct  where  yolk  receives 
the  albumen.  7 — Lower  part  of  the  ovi- 
duct showing  complete  egg  in  shell  gland, 
ready  to  be  laid.  8 — Anus.  (Oregon  Ex- 
periment Station.) 


egg  is  covered  with,  a  transparent  sac.  A  normal  hen  has 
more  than  a  thousand  such  eggs  in  the  ovary.  All  the  eggs 
that  a  hen  may  lay  in  a  lifetime  will  be  found  in  the  ovary, 


PROBLEM  OF   HIGHER   FECUNDITY  137 

in  size  from  the  smallest  ooycote,  visible  only  with  the  aid 
of  a  magnifying  glass,  to  the  mature  yolk  ready  to  burst 
from  its  sac.  It  has  been  found  under  normal  egg-laying 
conditions  that  it  requires  about  two  weeks  for  the  egg  yolk 
to  grow  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  a  full-sized  yolk.  The 
yolk  is  matured  in  the  ovary.  "When  matured  it  detaches 
itself  and  falls  into  the  oviduct. 

The  rest  of  the  egg  is  "made"  in  the  oviduct.  This  is  a 
large  coiled  tube,  whitish  in  color,  extending  from  a  point 
just  below  the  ovary  to  the  cloaca.  The  albumin  and  shell 
are  put  on  in  the  oviduct.  This  is  accomplished  more 
rapidly  than  is  the  development  of  the  yolk.  The  perfect 
egg  with  its  hard  shell  can  be  retained  in  the  cloaca  a  short 
time,  or  several  hours,  before  being  laid. 

In  passing  through  the  oviduct  the  egg  travels  about  24 
inches.  It  is  forced  through  this  passage  by  contraction  of 
the  oviduct.  As  the  yolk  passes  into  and  through  the  ovi- 
duct it  becomes  surrounded  by  albumin,  and  finally  by  the 
shell.  The  time  occupied  by  the  egg  passing  through  the 
various  sections  of  the  oviduct  is  estimated  by  Kolliker  as 
follows :  In  the  upper  two-thirds  of  oviduct,  where  albumin 
is  formed,  three  hours;  in  the  isthmus  where  the  shell 
membrane  is  put  on,  three  hours,  and  in  the  uterus  for  the 
formation  of  shell  and  laying,  12  to  24  hours. 

Recent  investigations  by  Pearl  and  Curtis  would  modify 
the  above  statement.  (Maine  Bulletin  206.)  It  was  shown 
in  their  investigations  that  only  40%  of  the  albumin  was 
formed  in  the  albumin  portion  of  the  oviduct;  10  to  20% 
was  formed  in  the  isthmus,  or  that  portion  where  the  mem- 
brane of  the  shell  is  made,  and  30%  to  40%  of  the  total 
weight  of  albumin  was  added  to  the  egg  in  the  uterus, 
passing  through  the  shell  by  osmosis. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SYSTEMS  OF  POULTRY  FARMING 

Various  methods  are  followed  in  keeping  poultry  and  it 
is  well  at  the  outset  to  form  a  clear  conception  of  the  busi- 
ness of  poultry  husbandry  in  its  different  aspects. 

Mixed  Husbandry. — The  great  bulk  of  the  poultry  and 
egg  supply  of  the  country  is  produced  under  a  system  of 
mixed  husbandry.  This  type  of  farming  constitutes  the 
most  promising  field  for  increasing  the  production  of 
poultry  staples.  Under  present  conditions  poultry  and 
eggs  are  produced  at  greater  profit  by  the  general  farmer 
than  by  any  other  class  of  poultry-keepers.  Poultry- 
keeping  fits  in  well  with  about,  any  system  or  type  of  farm- 
ing. It  is  usually  a  side  line,  though  sometimes  it  is  the 
leading  feature  of  the  farm.  The  farmer  may  or  may  not 
specialize  in  poultry-keeping.  Mixed  husbandry  may  be 
carried  on  where  the  production  of  poultry  and  eggs  is  the 
leading  feature  and  brings  in  the  largest  revenue  of  any 
branch  of  the  farming  operations. 

Specialization. — This  in  poultry-keeping  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  that  the  poultry-keeper  must  confine  himself 
exclusively  to  poultry  production.  He  may  be  a  poultry 
specialist  and  grow  the  feed  for  his  poultry  and  a  large 
part  of  the  food  for  the  family.  Specialization  does  not 
mean  one-crop  farming.  The  railroad  business  is  a  highly 
specialized  business,  but  the  railroad  grows  more  than  one 
kind  of  crop  on  its  right-of-way.  There  is  a  freight  crop 
and  a  passenger  crop,  and  other  crops,  such  as  express, 
mail,  etc.  If  the  railroads  were  to  specialize  on  passengers 
alone  they  would  probably  fail  to  make  ends  meet. 

The  best  poultry  specialization  is  that  which  makes  the 

138 


SYSTEMS  OF  POULTRY  FARMING  139 


POULTRY  KEEPING  AND  DAIRYING 

A  Petaluma  ranch  where  cows  and  chickens  use  the  same  range.  More  than 
5,00(X  laying  hens  and  three  dozen  Jersey  cows  are  kept  on  this  farm,  owned  by 
T.  B.  Purvine.  The  hens'  feeding  troughs  are  fenced  in  from  the  cows,  "the 
fence,"  as  well  as  houses,  being  portable.  (Two  views.) 

best  use  of  land  and  secures  the  highest  profit  per  head  of 
fowls  kept.  Where  mixed  husbandry  poultry-keeping  is 
followed  the  cost  of  feed  is  comparatively  low.  The  smaller 
the  number  of  fowls  kept  per  acre  the  lower  the  food  cost 
will  be.  The  ordinary  by-products  of  other  branches  of 
farming  and  the  waste  grains  will  be  sufficient  to  keep  a 
small  flock  of  fowls  without  any  apparent  feed  cost. 

Dairying  and  poultry-keeping  is  a  good  combination,  the 
poultry  furnishing  a  profitable  market  for  the  skim  milk 
or  butter  milk.  Possibly  on  the  grain  farms  poultry  may 


140  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

be  kept  at  lowest  cost.  A  combination  of  poultry  with 
fruit  growing  may  be  successfully  followed.  Apart  from 
the  return  in  eggs  and  chickens  the  farm  is  benefited  by 
the  flock  of  poultry  in  the  destruction  of  weed  seeds  and 
insects  and  in  the  manure  furnished.  The  chickens  often 
rid  the  fields  of  grasshoppers  and  other  injurious  insects. 
The  manure  from  50  fowls  will  maintain  the  fertility  of 
an  acre  of  land  for  the  growth  of  crops.  Poultry-keeping 
fits  in  well  with  a  system  of  crop  rotation. 

There  is  undoubtedly  an  advantage  also  to  the  poultry 
themselves,  under  conditions  obtaining  in  mixed  husbandry. 
The  large  range  is  conducive  to  health  and  vigor  in  the 
fowls.  There  is  no  overcrowding  of  the  land  and  the 
danger  of  soil  contamination  is  largely  eliminated.  On  the 
general  farm  the  best  conditions  are  available  for  the  health 
and  vigor  of  the  stock  and  for  low  cost  of  production. 
Looking  at  it  from  the  standpoint  of  the  state  or  community, 
the  development  of  this  type  of  poultry  farming  offers  the 
surest  and  quickest  means  of  bringing  production  of  eggs 
and  poultry  up  to  the  demands  of  the  consumer. 

Examples. — Examples  of  profitable  poultry  farming 
under  mixed  husbandry  conditions  may  be  found  in  any 
county,  but  general  farms  on  which  poultry-keeping  is 
conducted  on  rather  a  large  scale  or  as  the  main  feature 
of  the  farm,  are  not  numerous.  Little  Compton,  E.  I.,  and 
Petaluma,  Cal.,  are  two  districts  referred  to  more  generally 
than  others  where  extensive  specialized  poultry  farming 
prevails.  The  Petaluma  district  is  largely  given  over  to 
extensive  poultry  farming  and  examples  of  the  same  type 
of  poultry  farming  may  be  found  in  Little  Compton,  but 
the  latter  could  hardly  be  characterized  as  a  district  of 
exclusive  or  special  poultry  farmers. 

A  great  many,  if  not  the  majority  of  the  farms  in  this 
district,  come  more  or  less  under  the  designation  of  mixed 


SYSTEMS   OF   POULTRY   FARMING 


141 


An  Oregon  fruit  and  poultry  farm. — N.  C.  Jorgensen,  owner. 


A  California  poultry  and  fruit  farm.    Houses  are  portable. — H.  A.  George,  owner. 
COMBINATION  OF  FRUIT  AND  POULTRY 

husbandry  farms  with  poultry  production  as  the  leading 
feature.  Under  those  conditions  poultry-keeping  has  been 
a  profitable  business  for  more  than  half  a  century.  The 
extensive  system  prevails;  that  is,  there  is  wide  range  for 
the  fowls.  The  colony  system  of  housing  is  used.  The 
hatching  and  rearing  of  the  fowls  is  done  by  natural  means 
almost  universally,  and  in  feeding,  the  general  practice  is 
to  feed  a  moist  mash  in  the  morning.  Farm  crops  are 
grown  to  a  limited  extent. 


142  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

Exclusive  Poultry-Keeping. — This  may  be  defined  as 
that  type  or  kind  of  poultry-keeping  that  is  carried  on  by 
the  poultry-keeper  as  an  exclusive  business  in  itself  and 
as  an  exclusive  means  of  support  and  profit.  All  the  feed 
for  the  fowls  is  purchased.  There  are  sections  in  the 
United  States  where  this  type  of  poultry -keeping  has  been 
carried  on  successfully  for  years.  It  is  true,  however,  that 


1,000   PULLETS   IN  A  PRUNE   ORCHARD 
Owners,  Rev.  M.  C.  Wire  &  Son,  Newberg,  Oregon. 

a  great  many  failures  have  resulted.  This  branch  or  type 
of  poultry-keeping  has  been  more  or  less  uncertain  in  the 
past  but  there  is  not  now  so  much  excuse  for  failure  because 
the  available  information  on  the  subject  is  more  reliable 
than  formerly.  Exclusive  poultry-keeping  must  not  be 
gone  into  by  the  novice  without  experience  or  he  is  almost 
certain  to  fail. 

There  are  only  certain  districts  or  locations  where  poul- 
try-keeping should  be  made  a  special  or  exclusive  business. 


SYSTEMS   OF   POULTRY  FARMING 


143 


Nearness  to  good  markets  and  shipping  points,  reasonably 
cheap  feed,  low  land  cost,  suitable  soil  and  climatic  con- 
ditions, are  points  that  must  not  be  overlooked  when  de- 
ciding whether  to  embark  in  this  kind  of  poultry  farming. 
These  conditions  being  favorable,  a  man  with  the  proper 
knowledge  and  experience,  may  successfully  engage  in  ex- 
clusive poultry  farming,  and  by  giving  special  attention 
to  the  quality  of  the  product,  whether  it  be  eggs  and  fowls 


EGGS    AND    PEACHES    FROM    THE    SAME    GROUND 
Chas.   G.   Weaver,   Los  Angeles. 

for  select  market  or  breeding  stock  and  eggs  for  hatching, 
he  will  be  able  to  add  considerably  to  his  revenue  and 
profits.  It  is  here  that  a  special  or  exclusive  poultry- 
keeper  has  an  advantage  over  the  farmer  with  the  small 
flock.  He  has  enough  eggs  and  poultry  to  make  it  a  point 
to  develop  special  markets. 

Examples  of  Exclusive  Farms. — Examples  of  exclusive 
poultry  farming  may  be  found  in  any  state  but  there  are 
few  sections  where  any  considerable  area  is  given  over  to 


144  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

this  type  of  farming.  No  doubt  the  district  of  Petaluma, 
Cal.;  offers  the  best  opportunity  for  a  study  of  this  type 
of  farming  of  possibly  any  district  in  the  world.  In  this 
district  a  whole  county  is  practically  given  over  to  poultry- 
keeping,  and  though  it  does  not  all  come  under  the  desig- 
nation of  exclusive  farming,  a  large  proportion  of  it  does. 
Different  types  of  poultry  farms  are  here  found  varying 
from  the  intensely  intensive  to  the  very  extensive,  or  in 
area  from  an  acre  of  ground  to  over  500  acres.  "While 
intensive  poultry-keeping  is  practiced  the  industry  has  been 
built  up  largely  along  extensive  lines.  There  are  also 
poultry  farms  of  the  mixed  husbandry  type,  and  combina- 
tions of  poultry  raising  with  dairying  and  with  fruit  grow- 
ing are  frequently  seen. 

Among  the  large,  exclusive  farms,  there  is  much  simil- 
arity in  the  methods  or  system  followed.  The  colony  house 
and  free  range  system  is  almost  universal  either  on  the 
large  or  small  farms.  The  success  of  the  Petaluma  district 
is  doubtless  largely  due  to  this  system.  The  house  is  one 
that  may  be  easily  moved  by  a  team  of  horses.  On  some 
farms,  though  the  houses  are  easily  portable,  they  are  al- 
lowed to  remain  for  several  years  without  moving.  The 
usual  size  of  the  house  is  about  7  x  12  or  8  x  12  feet  with 
gable  roof.  It  is  built  on  the  box  plan  of  construction, 
the  frame  consisting  of  runners,  to  which  the  cross-pieces 
are  bolted  at  the  ends,  the  plates  and  four  rafters.  The 
siding  is  nailed  on  vertically  and  serves  to  support  the 
sides  without  studding.  On  some  houses  shingles  are  used, 
on  some  roofing  paper  and  on  others  shakes.  Floors  are 
used  in  the  houses  on  some  of  the  best  types  of  farms. 

As  understood  in  Petaluma  the  colony  system  is  this: 
A  colony  of  fowls  on  the  large  farms  is  usually  200  hens. 
For  this  colony  two  roostmg  houses  and  one  laying  house 
are  provided,  a  section  of  the  latter  being  used  on  many 


146  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

farms  for  storing  feed.  The  different  colonies  are  so 
widely  separated  that  the  grass  is  never  eaten  off  the  fields. 
The  laying  house  is  placed  between  the  two  roosting  houses 
and  is  usually  smaller  than  the  roosting  house.  There  is 
nothing  in  the  roosting  house  except  the  perches,  the  whole 
space  being  used  for  roosting.  With  100  hens  in  a  house 
the  roosting  space  per  hen  is  about  one  square  foot  floor 
space.  This,  of  course,  is  crowding  them  to  the  limit  and 


PETALUMA  FARM  OF  120  ACRES  AND  6,000  HENS 

A  boy  on  horseback  feeds  the  hens  wheat  in  half  an  hour.     Wm.  Reardon, 

owner. 


it  is  not  the  universal  practice.  In  any  less  favorable 
climate  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  do  business  on  this 
basis,  and  even  here  it  is  very  questionable  whether  better 
financial  results  would  not  be  obtained  if  not  more  than 
75  hens  were  kept  in  the  house. 

As  to  the  system  of  feeding,  the  practice  is  to  heavily 
feed  a  wet  mash  in  the  morning,  with  wheat  in  the  after- 
noon. The  feed  troughs  are  fenced  in  if  cattle  or  sheep 
are  in  the  same  field. 

The  White  Leghorn  breed  is  almost  exclusively  kept. 
Larger  and  less  active  breeds  would  not  be  suited  in  some 
particulars  to  the  methods  followed.  It  may  not  seem 
reasonable  to  say  that  a  man  with  5,000  hens  on  a  farm 


SYSTEMS   OF   POULTRY  FARMING 


147 


of  100  acres  or  even  200  acres  can  get  better  results  from 
his  labor  by  colonizing  his  hens  all  over  the  farm  than 
the  man  with  20  acres  and  5,000  hens  closer  together,  but 
the  poultrymen  with  the  large  farms  are  undoubtedly 
handling  the  business  at  better  profit  than  those  on  limited 
acreage  near  town.  The  saving  of  steps  by  building  houses 


CLEANING  OUT  THE  HOUSES  ON  THE  REARDON  FARM 

There  are  no  dropping  platforms.  The  roost  perches  are  pushed  out  at  one 
end  of  the  house,  the  manure  scraped  out  the  door  and  thrown  onto  a  sled, 
then  lime  is  scattered  on  the  floor. 

close  together  does  not  necessarily  lessen  the  labor  or  re- 
duce the  cost  of  producing  a  dozen  eggs. 

The  important  question  is  the  maintenance  of  vigor  and 
productive  qualities  in  the  fowls.  Where  the  acreage  is 
so  limited  that  the  ground  is  kept  bare  of  vegetation  the 
year  around,  is  muddy  in  wet  weather  and  hard  and  warm 
in  dry  weather,  the  conditions  are  more  favorable  for  loss 


148 


POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 


A    LARGE   POULTRY   FARM   IN    RHODE   ISLAND 

Where  land  unfit  for  cultivation  is  used. 

of  vigor  and  consequent  lower  production.  On  the  wide 
range  it  should  be  understood  that  the  work  of  feeding  is 
much  simplified.  For  instance,  on  a  farm  of  120  acres  of 
which  the  author  has  knowledge,  with  6,000  hens,  the  after- 
noon feeding  was  done  by  a  boy  of  fourteen  in  half  an  hour. 
He  jumped  on  a  horse  at  one  o'clock  and  made  the  rounds  of 
all  the  scattered  colonies  in  that  time,  doing  the  work  of 
feeding  wheat  by  opening  a  self-feeding  bin.  Under  in- 
tensive conditions  greater  care  must  be  exercised  in  the 


2,000  HENS  ON  THREE  ACRES 
S.   A.   Bickford,  near  Los  Angeles. 


150  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

feeding.  The  problem  of  exercise  is  practically  eliminated 
under  the  extensive  free-range  system.  Under  the  inten- 
sive or  yarded  system  more  frequent  feeding  is  necessary 
in  order  to  induce  exercise.  Straw  or  other  scratching 
litter  must  be  furnished  and  the  work  of  cleaning  out  the 
old  straw  and  putting  in  new  involves  considerable  labor 
and  expense.  The  yards  must  be  cultivated  and  possibly 
disinfected.  Green  feed  must  be  furnished  every  day, 


4,000  HENS  ON  FOUR  ACRES 
Swanson  &  Johnson,  near  Los  Angeles. 

involving  expense  both  for  the  green  stuff  and  for  labor  in 
feeding.  The  opening  of  gates  through  the  yards  is 
troublesome. 

On  some  soils  there  is  sufficient  grit  for  the  fowls  on  free 
range.  This  saves  the  expense  of  buying  and  feeding  grit. 
Some  animal  feed  will  be  found  on  free  range.  Under 
certain  conditions  there  will  be  waste  grain  in  stubble 
fields  and  weed  seeds.  These  will  lessen  the  feed  bill. 
Again,  as  to  equipment.  There  is  considerable  expense  for 
fencing  yarded  fowls  which  is  not  necessary  on  free  range. 
The  increased  cost  for  all  these  items  under  the  intensive 
plan  will  largely  offset  the  added  labor  cost  of  caring  for 
fowls  under  the  colony  house  system. 


SYSTEMS    OF   POULTRY   FARMING  151 

Suburban  Poultry-Keeping. — As  a  result  largely  of  the 
development  of  electric  systems  of  railroads  the  keeping 
of  poultry  in  the  suburbs  of  cities  is  a  type  of  poultry 
farming  that  has  been  making  much  headway  in  recent 
years.  City  people,  with  a  love  for  the  soil,  build  homes 
near  electric  lines  a  few  miles  from  the  city,  and  on  an 


THE  INTENSIVE  PLAN 
A  thousand  hens  eating  green  feed,  southern  California. 

acre  or  two  of  ground  are  able  to  add  to  their  income  by 
keeping  fowls.  Where  other  members  of  the  family  can 
help  with  the  work  a  profitable  business  may  be  done  on 
an  acre  or  two  in  the  suburbs.  With  special  care  in  the 
production  of  eggs  and  chickens  of  good  quality  accessible 
to  markets,  it  will  be  possible  to  obtain  good  prices.  The 
product  may  be  delivered  direct  to  the  consumer  either  by 
private  delivery  or  parcel  post.  If  located  on  a  good  auto- 
mobile road  many  eggs  may  be  sold  at  good  prices  to 
passers-by. 


152 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


Backyard  Poultry-Keeping. — Chickens  may  be  kept  on 
a  city  lot  at  a  profit.     The  waste  food  from  the  table  of 

an  average  family,  in  addition 
to  a  little  grain,  will  feed 
enough  fowls  to  furnish  the 
needed  fresh  eggs  for  the 
family.  With  good  hens  and 
careful  attention  to  the  houses 
and  yards,  a  piece  of  ground 
25  x  50  feet  will  accommodate 
enough  hens  to  produce  as 
many  fresh  eggs  as  the  aver- 
age family  will  consume,  be- 
sides a  considerable  number 
of  broilers.  It  must  be  under- 
stood, however,  that  the 
chickens  will  require  daily  at- 
tention throughout  the  year. 
The  feeding  must  be  done  reg- 
ularly and  intelligently  and 
the  premises  be  kept  clean  and 
sanitary.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  a  chicken  yard  should  be 
a  disfigurement  to  the  back 
premises;  a  chicken  yard  may 
be  made  a  thing  of  beauty  as 
well  as  profit  on  a  town  lot. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  make 
the  chicken  yard  a  nuisance 
ground,  or  dumping-place  for 
old  shoes  and  tomato  cans. 
Chickens  do  not  thrive  on 
such  things.  The  spectacle  of 


BACKYARD    EGG   FARMING 

Clarence  Hogan,  winner  of  a 
$100  prize  in  a  poultry  contest 
at  Portland,  Oregon.  He  was 
13  years  old  and  finishing  the 
eighth  grade  in  school.  He  fed 
the  chickens,  cleaned  their 
houses,  spaded  the  yards  for 
them,  weighed  the  food  they 
ate  and  counted  the  eggs.  In 
addition  to  all  that  he  was  an 
editor — editing  a  small  paper  and 
publishing  it  with  the  aid  of  a 
typewriter  and  a  mimeograph. 
What  can  a  boy  not  do? 


SYSTEMS  OP  POULTRY  FARMING  153 

a  chicken  yard  made  into  a  dumping-ground  for  rubbish 
and  the  chickens  treated  as  scavengers  is  disgusting,  and 
should  not  be  tolerated  in  any  community. 

A  nice  flock  of  chickens  properly  cared  for  and  housed, 


BACKYARD   EGG   FARMING 

Miss  Ruth  Hayes,  winner  of  second  prize,  $50.     A  poultry  yard  may  be 
made  an  attractive  feature  of  the  backyard. 


and  yarded  in  becoming  style,  may  become  an  attractive 
feature  of  the  vacant  lot ;  and  besides  furnishing  the  daily 
fresh  egg,  will  afford  a  mental  diversion  to  some  of  the 
older  people  and  a  pleasure  to  the  younger  members  of 
the  family.  Young  boys  and  young  girls  of  the  town, 
lacking  something  to  do,  will  find  in  a  flock  of  chickens  in- 
terest and  instruction.  The  more  ambitious  youngster 
will  find  opportunity  for  a  study  of  the  problems  that  are 
of  absorbing  interest  to  all  students  of  plant  and  animal 
breeding ;  for  though  the  chicken  is  a  chicken,  it  is  subject 
to  the  same  laws  of  heredity  as  are  plants  and  livestock  in 
general.  Profit  therefore  may  be  realized  in  different  ways 


154 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


from  chickens  on  the  city  lot  when  given  proper  care  and 
attention. 

A  Plan.  —  On  a  piece  of  ground  25  x  50  feet  enough 
fowls  may  be  kept  to  furnish  the  eggs  needed  for  an 
average  family.  It  should  not  be  attempted,  however,  on 
unsuitable  ground.  It  is  not  expected  that  the  plan  submit- 

ted can  be  followed 
^^  under  all  conditions. 

HHHHB^/  ''''"'  '1011S(~  suggested 

m  is  6  x  8  feet  with  a 

*B  Bk  I    shed  roof.    The  style 

or  shape  of  the  house 
may  be  changed  to 
suit  the  tastes  of 
the  owner,  but  the 
amount  of  floor 


A  BACKYARD  HOUSE 


space    or    air   space 
as   provided   for  in 

In  this  house  25  hens  were  kept  for  a  year. 

The  hens  were  never  out  of  it.     They  laid  an         the      sketch     should 
average   of    188  eggs. 

be    available    what- 

ever the  shape  of  the  house  may  be,  for  12  or  15  hens. 
At  least  a  fourth  of  the  side  of  the  house  should  be  open  to 
admit  fresh  air.  In  cold  sections  a  curtain  of  muslin  may 
be  hung  over  the  opening  at  night,  but  this  may  not  be 
necessary,  as  shown  in  the  chapter  on  Housing.  If  there 
is  not  sufficient  light  a  window  may  be  put  in  the  end  of 
the  house  at  a  point  where  the  maximum  sunshine  will  be 
admitted.  The  illustration  shows  a  little  flat  roof  and  it 
is  covered  with  building  paper.  If  shingles  be  used  at 
least  one-fourth  pitch  will  be  necessary.  It  will  be  best 
to  face  the  house  to  the  south  to  admit  the  sunshine,  but 
it  may  be  faced  in  any  other  direction  to  avoid  strong 
wind,  or  for  other  reasons.  (See  illustration  on  page  156.) 


SYSTEMS  OF  POULTRY  FARMING  155 

The  plan  shows  double  yards  each  I2y2  x  50  feet,  less  the 
space  occupied  by  the  house  and  the  small  lot  at  each 
corner.  This  means  there  will  be  "rotation  of  crops/' 
The  chickens  may  be  rotated  with  the  vegetable  garden. 
The  garden  will  be  in  one  yard  while  the  chickens  are  in 
the  other.  Chickens  should  not  be  kept  on  the  same  yard 
two  years  in  succession.  It  is  a  mistake  to  crowd  the  yards 
beyond  ability  to  keep  them  clean.  The  yard  should  be 
spaded  frequently  to  prevent  accumulation  of  droppings 


ANOTHER  BACKYARD  SYSTEM 

The  original  "Philo  method"  of  close  confinement.     The  system  shown  here 
entails  a  heavy  labor  cost  when  large  numbers  of  fowls  are  kept. 

and  to  keep  the  soil  in  better  condition  for  the  fowls  to 
scratch  in.  This  will  furnish  exercise  for  the  fowls  and 
help  to  keep  the  ground  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

At  the  end  of  the  house  there  is  a  small  enclosure,  6x8 
feet,  which  may  be  used  for  hatching  the  chicks  if  it  is 
desired  to  rear  them  instead  of  to  purchase  mature  pullets. 
Where  it  is  possible  to  purchase  the  pullets  in  the  fall  from 
a  breeder  of  good  laying  stock  at  a  reasonable  price,  it 
will  be  more  satisfactory  to  do  so  than  to  continue  rearing 
the  fowls  on  the  small  lot  to  reproduce  the  flock.  The 
layers  may  be  kept  two  years  and  then  replaced  with 
pullets. 


156 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


The  Crowing  Rooster. — Where  the  method  of  buying 
the  pullets  is  followed,  the  rooster  is  unnecessary.  The 
hens  will  lay  as  well  without  him,  and  the  objections  of  the 
neighbors  to  chickens  on  account  of  the  early  morning 
crowing  will  be  overcome.  If  desired  to  keep  a  male,  he 
may  be  discouraged  from  crowing  by  placing  a  board  or 
hanging  canvass  over  his  perch  at  such  a  height  as  to 
prevent  him  stretching  his  neck.  A  rooster  in  crowing 


A  PLAN  FOR  BACKYARD  POULTRY  KEEPING 

raises  his  head  at  a  considerable  height,  and  if  he  cannot 
raise  it  the  desired  height  there  will  be  little  crowing. 

Fancy  Poultry-Keeping. — Another  type  of  poultry- 
keeping  is  that  of  breeding  fancy  or  show  fowls.  It  is  not 
assumed  that  fancy  or  utility  are  not  and  cannot  be  com- 
bined, but  there  is  a  class  of  poultry-keepers  whose  chief 
business  or  profit  is  made  in  the  production  of  fowls  that 
excel  in  qualities  demanded  by  the  Standard  of  Perfec- 
tion in  the  show  bird.  These  breeders  have  been  called 
fanciers  probably  because  many  of  the  points  they  breed 
for  and  make  a  profit  on  are  matters  of  fancy  rather 
than  utility.  Poultry  fanciers  have  done  a  good  deal  in 
creating  an  interest  in  poultry-keeping  through  the  medium 


SYSTEMS   OF   POULTRY  FARMING  157 

of  exhibitions.  The  breeding  of  fancy  show  specimens  is 
a  business  in  itself,  requiring  special  fitness,  and  when  by 
superior  knowledge  and  skill  in  the  mating  of  fowls  the 
breeder  is  able  to  produce  specimens  so  near  perfection  in 
exhibition  points  that  others  are  willing  to  pay  from  $10 
to  $50  for  single  birds,  he  is  not  receiving  more,  probably, 
than  reasonable  recompense  for  the  labor  and  skill  ex- 
pended in  their  production.  Prices  as  high  as  $500  and 
more  have  been  reported  paid  for  single  birds. 

The  standard  followed  by  the  fancier  is  not  altogether 
based  on  points  foreign  to  utility,  but  from  the  utility 
standpoint  the  fancier's  standard  emphasizes  too  highly 
many  points  of  color  and  shape  that  have  no  correlation 
with  useful  qualities.  So  long  as  the  leading  poultry  shows 
are  judged  according  to  this  standard  there  will  be  a 
profitable  business  for  the  fancier,  who  has  the  necessary 
skill,  in  breeding  prize-winning  show  specimens,  even 
though  he  may  not  find  a  strong  demand  for  his  stock  from 
the  commercial  poultry-keepers  or  farmers. 

When  the  fancy  standard  is  brought  more  in  line  with 
the  utility  viewpoint  and  show  birds  are  judged  more  on 
a  utility  basis,  the  fancier  will  readjust  his  breeding 
practices  and  produce  stock  that  is  in  demand  not  only  in 
the  show  room  but  on  the  commercial  farm.  The  business 
should  then  be  more  profitable  and  need  not  lose  any  of 
its  fascination.  If  this  is  not  done  a  double  standard  will 
be  needed — one  for  the  purely  fancy,  another  for  the 
utility. 

A  Financial  Statement. — The  following  table  gives  the 
actual  results  secured  on  three  different  types  of  farms  in 
the  Willamette  Valley,  Ore.,  in  one  year.  Similar  types  of 
farms  could  be  found  in  any  state  of  the  Union. 

Farm  A  represents  that  type  of  farming,  mixed  hus- 
bandry, which  produces  most  of  the  poultry  and  eggs  of 


158 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


the  country,  with  the  difference  that  the  poultry  branch 
of  it  is  accentuated  more  strongly  than  on  the  average 
general  farm.  Farm  B  shows  a  combination  of  fruit  grow- 
ing and  poultry  raising  on  which  poultry  raising  is  of 
nearly  equal  importance  with  fruit  growing  in  the  average 
year.  This  farm  shows  heavy  production  for  the  acreage. 
Farm  C  represents  the  exclusive  or  special  poultry  farm 
type. 

It  is  not  assumed  that  these  represent  the  best  results 
obtainable  on  any  one  class  of  farms,  but  they  are  given 
because  they  show  satisfactory  results  and  at  the  same 
time  give  the  necessary  data  for  a  study  of  different  types. 


FARM  ABC 

No.  acres  owned   307  31  24 

Value  per  acre $93.48  $606  $1,000 

Horses  needed   7  2  1 

No.  of  fowls  kept 300  770  776 

Estimate  per  fowl : 

Cost  of  feed $1  $1.50  $1.25 

Eggs  per  hen   125  140  125 

Prices  received : 

Highest    $0.47  $0.45  $0.65 

Lowest    $0.18  $0.20  $0.271/2 

RECEIPTS 

Hay  and  field  crops $1,381.20 

Animal  husbandry    996  $      10 

Dairy    300  50 

Orchard  and  garden   . .  5,270 

Value  of  poultry  and  eggs  sold . . .  839.30  2,715  $2,708 

Total   $3,766.50  $8,045.30  $2,708 

Net  receipts    $2,077  $4,554.30  $520 

Net  gain    2.944  5,379.30  1,420 

Per  cent  gain  on  investment...  8.6  19.7  5.3 


SYSTEMS  OF  POULTRY  FARMING  159 

EXPENSES 

FARM                                                A               B  C 

Hired   labor    $250          $1,000  $        8 

Operating  expense 782.50       2,716  1,288 

Total  expense 1,689.50      3,491  2,188 

CAPITAL 

Land    $28,700        $18,800  $24,000 

Dwelling's  1,500           2,000  500 

Other  buildings   500           4,000  800 

Machinery  and  tools 200               500  50 

Live  stock 2,914              485  670 

Peed  and  seed 100                50  100 

Cash  to  run  farm 75           1,000  400 

Total    $33,989        $26,835  $26,520 


CHAPTER  IX 

HOUSING   OF   POULTRY 

Environment  has  much  to  do  in  the  matter  of  getting 
eggs;  that  is,  there  is  a  close  relationship  between  en- 
vironment and  egg  yield.  "What  is  environment?  The 
house  or  shelter  is  part  of  the  environment  of  the  hen. 
The  kind  of  soil  the  hen  ranges  on  or  scratches  in;  the 
climatic  conditions, — rain-fall,  snow-fall,  wind  movement, — 
the  size  of  yard  or  the  amount  of  land,  mode  of  getting 
feed,  disturbing  elements  or  noise  that  will  cause  fright, 
number  of  fowls  in  the  flock,  all  these  and  many  other 
things  are  part  of  the  environment  of  the  hen.  If  these  con- 
ditions are  favorable  her  environment  is  favorable  for  egg 
production. 

Changes  in  environment  have  had  a  great  deal  to  do 
with  improvement  in  egg-laying  qualities  of  fowls  since  the 
days  of  domestication.  This  point,  however,  is  discussed 
under  breeding.  Taming  the  wild  hen,  putting  her  under 
more  favorable  environment  as  to  shelter  and  feeding,  is 
responsible  for  a  large  part  of  the  increase  in  her  egg- 
laying.  Probably  no  other  domestic  animal  is  so  sensitive 
to  environment  as  is  the  laying  hen.  A  dog  running  past 
the  poultry  yards  and  scaring  the  hens,  and  strangers 
going  into  the  poultry  houses,  will  cut  down  on  the  egg 
yield  perceptibly,  so  sensitive  is  the  hen  to  her  environ- 
ment. A  slight  disturbance  in  mode  of  living — a  change 
from  one  yard  or  one  house  to  another,  a  change  in  atten- 
dant, neglect  or  sudden  change  in  the  feeding — is  reflected 
immediately  in  a  lower  egg  yield. 

160 


HOUSING  OF  POULTRY  161 

If  the  business  of  egg  production  is  harder  or  requires 
greater  skill  than  the  business  of  butter  production,  it  is 
because  of  this  one  fact — the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  the 
hen  to  her  environment.  This  lesson  should  be  thoroughly 
remembered  in  embarking  in  the  poultry  business  and 
especially  in  planning  the  poultry  houses  and  yards. 

Changes  and  Progress. — Probably  in  no  other  branch  of 
poultry  husbandry  have  ideas  and  methods  changed  more 
radically  during  the  past  ten  years  than  in  that  relating 
to  housing  of  poultry,  and  we  are  bound  to  say  that  the 
changes  have  been  along  the  line  of  progress.  There  are 
still  problems  in  poultry  housing  but  they  are  being 
worked  out  surely.  At  the  end  of  the  last  century  dense 
ignorance  of  simple,  elementary  principles  of  housing  might 
well  characterize  the  state  of  knowledge  on  this  subject. 
Not  that  there  were  not  some  isolated  examples  of  proper 
housing ;  there  were.  But  there  was  no  general  agreement 
among  authorities  as  to  what  constituted  some  of  the 
essential  principles  of  housing.  There  were  fierce  conten- 
tions on  the  subject  but  lacking  actual  demonstration  the 
contenders  got  nowhere.  The  change  of  methods  has 
amounted  to  a  revolution.  No  one  agency  has  been  re- 
sponsible for  this  change,  but  probably  without  the  demon- 
strations made  at  experiment  stations  there  would  not 
have  been  the  progress  that  has  been  witnessed.  The  lesson 
has  also  been  learned  and  taught  by  costly  experience  and 
experiment  of  practical  poultry-keepers.  Professor  Gowell  's 
work  at  the  Maine  Station  deserves  strong  commendation. 
Not  that  he  discovered  any  new  thing  in  poultry  housing 
but  he  put  conflicting  ideas  to  test  and  by  actual  demon- 
stration brought  poultry-keepers  face  to  face  with  the 
problem. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  progress  that  has  been  made 
since  the  beginning  of  the  century,  the  last  word  has  not 


162  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

been  said  upon  this  subject.  Progress  has  been  made, 
though  sometimes  it  has  been  made  by  going  backward; 
and  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  ten  years  from  now 
some  of  the  things  now  advocated  are  thrown  on  the  scrap 
heap. 

The  difficulties  come  mostly  from  failure  to  understand 
the  essential  conditions  of  housing.  There  have  been  many 
costly  experiments  in  the  poultry  business;  there  will  be 
many  more,  no  doubt,  but  few  have  been  more  costly  than 
the  experiment  in  housing.  Fifteen  years  ago  a  great 
many  poultry  houses  were  built  on  the  theory  that  warmth 
was  the  first  essential  of  winter  egg  production.  Houses 
were  double-boarded  and  lined  with  sheeting  paper.  Even 
brick  or  cement  houses  were  sometimes  built.  Some  were 
built  on  the  hot  house  plan  with  plenty  of  windows  to 
admit  the  sunshine.  The  fallacy  of  this  theory  has  been 
pretty  well  demonstrated  and  it  is  now  fairly  well  under-- 
stood that  the  first  essential  of  winter  egg  production,  as 
well  as  summer  egg  production,  is  the  health  and  vitality 
of  the  fowls,  not  warm  houses.  Whatever  kind  of  house 
best  meets  the  conditions  of  health  and  vigor  is  the  one 
that  will  give  the  most  profitable  egg  production. 

The  following  quotations  taken  from  an  early  edition 
of  Lewis  "Wright's  "Poultry  Book,"  will  be  of  interest 
here.  It  describes  conditions  obtaining  in  1813,  a  century 
ago,  and  it  points  a  lesson.  In  speaking  of  Scotch  fowls 
it  is  stated:  "The  hens  are  kept  in  as  dry  and  warm  a 
place  in  the  house  as  possible;  in  cottages  they  generally, 
during  the  night,  sit  at  no  great  distance  from  the  fire- 
place; the  consequence  is  that  the  farmer  whose  poultry 
are  in  the  night  time  confined  in  places  without  a  fire  ob- 
tain no  eggs;  the  poor  people  have  them  in  abundance. " 
Warmth  is  not  inimical  to  egg  laying.  It  is  the  attempt 
to  make  fowls  warm  without  ventilation  or  artificial  heat 


HOUSING  OF   POULTRY 


163 


that  is  impossible.  In  the  case  of  the  Scotch  cottagers  a 
century  ago  the  fowls  were  kept  near  a  fireplace,  and  ven- 
tilation and  dryiiess  were  furnished  by  the  fireplace. 

Natural  and  Artificial  Conditions. — It  is  a  well  estab- 
lished law  that  domestication  tends  to  enfeeblement.  The 
fact  that  fowls  have  been  under  domestication  two  thou- 
sand years  or  more  nullifies  this  law  only  in  degree.  But 
then,  how  is  greater  production  secured  under  domestica- 
tion than  in  the  wild  state?  It  is  secured  in  spite  of 
domestication.  The  fowl  is  placed  under  more  favorable 


THE   EVOLUTION   OF   THE   POULTRY   HOUSE 
The  first  and  not  the  worst  poultry  house  that  was  ever  built. 

conditions  for  production.  She  is  furnished  a  regular  and 
copious  supply  of  food.  Under  the  wild  state  the  food 
supply  is  often  precarious.  That  is  one  reason  why  in 
spite  of  domestication  there  is  high  production.  But  it 
requires  the  highest  skill  of  the  feeder  and  the  breeder  to 
offset  this  law  of  enfeeblement. 

Houses  and  Vigor. — The  hardest  problem  in  poultry- 
keeping  is  how  to  maintain  the  health  and  vigor  of  the 
fowls.  Housing  has  considerable  to  do  with  health  and 
vigor.  Ages  ago,  before  domestication,  chickens  roosted 
in  trees,  and  they  still  have  a  little  of  the  wild  nature. 


164  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Did  you  ever  notice  when  the  curfew  of  the  poultry 
yard  summons  the  fowls  to  their  roost,  that  they  usual- 
ly go  to  bed  on  the  branches  of  the  trees  if  there  is 
one  near  by  ?  Not  long  ago  the  writer  watched  a  flock  of 
fine  chickens  "retire"  for  the  night.  The  farmer  had 
built  good  houses  for  the  flock,  but  near  the  houses  there 
was  a  giant  oak  tree  decorated  by  nature  with  mistletoe. 
One  after  another  the  hens  flew  into  this  tree,  hopping 
from  one  branch  to  another  until  some  of  them  reached 


A  HOUSE  WITH  INSUFFICIENT  VENTILATION 

About  the  worst  ever  built. 


the  topmost  branches,  higher  than  the  highest  barn  on 
the  farm.  It  was  interesting  to  see  the  chickens  nestle 
down  under  the  mistletoe  for  the  night  while  the  roosts 
in  the  poultry  houses  were  vacant. 

On  another  occasion  the  writer  watched  a  flock  of  hens 
retire  for  the  night  where  they  had  the  choice  of  two 
houses.  One  was  a  sort  of  shed  affair  with  one  side  about 
all  open ;  it  was  a  fresh-air  house.  The  other  was  a  closed 
house  with  a  few  small  holes  for  ventilation.  About  nine 
out  of  every  ten  of  the  hens  crowded  into  the  open  house, 


HOUSING  OF  POULTRY  165 

though  they  had  originally  been  equally  divided  between 
the  two  houses.  They  preferred  the  fresh  air  house.  If 
there  had  been  a  tree  in  the  yard  they  probably  would 
have  preferred  that  to  either  of  the  houses. 

On  still  another  occasion  the  writer  watched  a  flock  of 
1,500  Leghorns  go  to  roost.  Their  houses  were  in  a  cherry 
orchard,  but  when  dusk  came  on  the  cherry  trees  were 
covered  with  white  fowls  while  the  poultry  houses  were 


AN  UNSATISFACTORY  POULTRY  HOUSE 

A  house  800  feet  long  being  torn  down  because  it  proved  unsatisfactory.  It 
had  two  bad  points:  (1)  It  was  built  on  an  incline,  with  no  tight  partitions,  and 
there  was  a  strong  draught  from  one  end  to  the  other.  (2)  It  was  too  closely 
built  up  in  front. 

practically  deserted.     The  tree  was  the  first  but  not  the 
worst  poultry  house  that  was  ever  built. 

There  are  times,  of  course,  in  severe  storms  when  chick- 
ens prefer  the  shelter  of  a  roof  to  roosting  in  a  tree ;  but 
the  lesson  is,  that  fowls  prefer  the  outdoor  life,  or  the 
" simple  life,"  and  when  put  in  close  houses  and  com- 
pelled to  live  there  under  the  mistaken  notion  that  this 
is  being  good  to  them  it  is  imposing  conditions  that  will 
result  in  decreased  vitality.  Housing  is  really  an  arti- 
ficial condition  for  chickens  and  it  is  a  serious  mistake 
in  poultry-keeping  to  follow  too  closely  artificial  lines. 


166  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

It  should  not  be  concluded,  however,  from  what  has 
been  said  above,  that  the  best  kind  of  housing  for  chickens 
is  in  the  trees.  It  should  not  be  inferred,  either,  that  we 
should  avoid  all  so-called  artificial  methods  in  poultry- 
keeping.  "While  housing  may  be  an  artificial  condition 
for  fowls,  nevertheless  good  housing  is  necessary  if  we  wish 
to  get  the  greatest  profit.  In  a  state  of  nature,  fowls  lay 
only  during  the  breeding  season,  and  it  is  necessary  in 
order  to  get  eggs  during  the  winter  season  to  surround  the 
hen  with  conditions  that  are  more  or  less  artificial.  If 
winter  egg  production  is  an  artificial  condition,  then  we 
must  resort  to  artificial  means  to  induce  the  fowl  to  lay 
in  that  season.  The  danger  is  that  we  are  liable  to  forget 
the  nature  of  the  hen  and  compel  her  to  live  under  con- 
ditions too  highly  artificial. 

In  a  state  of  nature  where  the  only  purpose  of  egg  pro- 
duction is  reproduction,  the  hen  does  not  lay  all  the  year. 
The  spring  is  the  natural  breeding  season.  A  hen  will  lay 
in  the  spring  under  all  sorts  of  conditions,  but  when  eggs 
are  50  cents  a  dozen  about  the  easiest  way  to  make  her 
lay  is  to  chop  her  head  off.  Winter  egg  production  is  a 
fight  against  nature,  against  the  wild  nature  of  the  hen. 
The  troubles  in  housing  poultry  come  from  failing  to 
recognize  the  nature  of  the  hen,  and  in  forcing  the  process 
of  domestication  too  far.  In  a  state  of  nature  her  wings 
answered  the  purpose  of  a  house;  she  flew  into  a  tree  to 
get  away  from  her  natural  enemies.  She  does  it  yet, 
but  the  enemy  now  is  the  man  who  builds  houses  that  are 
as  deadly  as  the  prowling  jackal  of  the  jungle.  Her  wings 
were  given  her  to  escape  her  enemies.  But  we  have  no 
use  for  her  wings.  They  cause  the  poultryman  a  good 
deal  of  trouble  and  expense.  But  the  wings  teach  us  a 
lesson.  If  the  house  doesn't  suit,  the  hen  will  use  her 
wings  to  get  away  from  it.  She  prefers  the  tree  to  a 


HOUSING  OF   POULTRY  167 

poor  house,  and  very  often  prefers  the  tree  to  any  kind 
of  a  house. 

The  lesson  is  that  the  hen  has  still  a  little  of  the  wild 
nature,  and  when  we  modernize  her,  when  we  put  her 
under  artificial  modes  of  living,  we  are  liable  to  get  the 
same  result  that  the  nation  got  in  putting  the  Indian  under 
conditions  of  modern  civilization.  They  cannot  stand  it, 
not  until  they  have  been  bred  to  it  by  a  long  process  of 
selection.  "We  will  get  better  results  if  we  remember  this 
fact  and  plan  our  houses  accordingly.  That  is  a  condition 
that  the  hen  imposes. 

Purpose  of  Housing. — When  we  build  houses  for  chick- 
ens we  have  in  mind  their  health  and  comfort.  We  may 
be  influenced  in  this  by  kindness  for  the  fowls  but  more 
often  by  selfishness  that  looks  for  a  full  egg  basket;  that 
is,  we  usually  build  houses  for  fowls  to  make  them  lay 
more  eggs.  We  may  say,  then,  that  the  purpose  of 
housing  is  to  increase  productiveness;  poor  housing  will 
decrease  it. 

Location  of  Houses. — 1.  Soils. — Chickens  will  thrive  on 
a  great  variety  of  soils,  but  certain  kinds  are  more  adapted 
than  others  to  successful  poultry-keeping.  If  possible, 
heavy  clay  soils  should  be  avoided.  They  are  hard  to  keep 
clean  or  sanitary.  A  rather  light,  porous  soil  is  preferable. 
This  is  drier  in  wet  weather  and  not  as  hard  in  dry  weather 
as  a  heavy  clay  soil.  A  wet  soil  is  colder  than  a  dry  one. 
The  house  should  not  be  set  in  a  mud  puddle.  That  is  as 
bad  as  setting  it  in  a  snow  bank.  It  was  Pasteur  who 
tried  to  inoculate  the  chicken  with  anthrax,  he  did  not 
succeed  until  he  made  the  chicken  stand  in  cold  water. 
The  temperature  of  the  chicken  was  too  high  for  the  germ 
to  develop,  but  after  reducing  the  temperature  by  cold 
water  on  the  feet  and  legs,  he  succeeded  in  inoculating  it 
with  the  disease.  .This  will  show  why  certain  diseases 


168  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

make   greater   headway   where   the   chickens  are   kept   in 
wet,  muddy  yards. 

2.  Drainage. — If    the    ground    selected    has    not    good 
natural   drainage,   provisions   should  be   made    either   by 
under-drainage  or  by  open  ditches  for  carrying  off  the  sur- 
plus water.     The  water  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in 
the  yard.     Muddy  feet  mean  muddy   eggs.       Dampness 
means  catarrh,  roup,  rheumatism,  tuberculosis,  etc. 

Sometimes  the  poultry  house  is  put  on  a  part  of  the 
farm  that  cannot  be  used  for  anything  else  and  occasion- 
ally on  a  low  sour  soil  too  damp  for  the  growth  of  cereals. 
Such  a  place  should  never  be  selected  as  a  location  for  the 
poultry  house.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  possible  to  select 
land  that  is  too  dry.  The  nature  of  the  soil  undoubtedly 
has  an  influence  on  the  growth  and  development  of  the 
chickens.  Chickens  make  a  more  thrifty  growth  if  kept 
on  a  soil  that  retains  some  moisture.  A  soil  that  becomes 
extremely  dry  and  warm  in  the  summer  months  is  not  the 
best.  Hot  sand  soils,  as  well  as  clay  soils  that  bake  hard 
in  the  summer,  do  not  afford  good  conditions  for  profitable 
poultry  production. 

The  question  as  to  how  many  fowls  may  be  kept  on  an 
acre  of  ground  depends  a  good  deal  on  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  Many  more  chickens  may  be  kept  on  soil  that  is 
rather  light  and  porous  than-  on  heavy  clay  soil.  Soil  con- 
tamination will  not  have  the  same  danger  on  the  porous 
soil  as  on  the  clay  soil. 

3.  Air  Drainage  is  sometimes  as  important  as  soil  drain- 
age.    Cold,  moist  air  seeks  the  lower  levels.     It  is  better 
to  locate  the  house  and  yards  on  higher  levels,  where  there 
is  some  air  movement  to  carry  off  the  cold,  damp  air  or 
prevent  it  becoming  stagnant.     Fowls  should  not,  however, 
be  exposed  to  high  winds.    You  will  notice  that  on  windy 
days  they  mope  around  in  sheltered  corners  or  in  houses. 


HOUSING  OF  POULTRY  169 

This  is  not  favorable  to  high  egg  production.  Sufficient 
air  drainage,  without  interfering  with  the  comfort  or  ac- 
tivity of  the  hen,  is  the  ideal  condition.  The  houses  may 
be  built  on  the  leeward  side  of  an  orchard  or  in  the  shelter 
of  buildings.  A  wind-break  of  trees  may  be  set  out  where 
necessary  to  provide  shelter. 

4.  Sunshine. — If  possible  the  houses  and  yards  should 
be  built  where  they  will  get  the  full  benefit  of  the  sun- 
shine.    Face  them  south  unless  the  prevailing  winds  are 
from  that  direction.     If  the  prevailing  winds  and  storms 
come  from  the  west  or  south  the  house  may  be  faced  east. 
It  may  even  be  necessary  in  cases  to  face  the  house  north. 
In  such  cases  windows  may  be  put  in  the  south  side  of 
the  house  to  admit  the  sunshine.     Sunshine  is  a  germ  de- 
stroyer and   a  better  egg  producer  than  red   pepper   or 
other  condimental  foods. 

5.  Other  Points. — Other    points    that    should    be    con- 
sidered in  locating  the  houses  are  (a)  the  convenience  of 
the  attendant,  nearness  to  the  feed  and  water  supply  will 
save  in  labor;    (b)    building  the  houses  away  from  the 
other  buildings  will  make  it  easier  to  keep  the  premises 
free  from  insect  pests  and  rats. 

Chickens  that  roost  in  trees  have  good  health.  They 
have  constitutional  vigor.  They  lay  well  except  in  severe 
weather.  Their  eggs  are  of  good  weight  and  hatch  well. 
They  very  seldom  have  colds  in  coldest  weather,  while 
their  sisters  in  warm  houses  will  be  running  at  the  nostrils 
and  have  swelled  head  and  ruffled  feathers. 

If  the  greatest  problem  is  to  maintain  the  health  and 
vigor  of  the  flock,  and  hens  will  maintain  health  and  vigor 
without  any  houses,  why  then  are  houses  needed  for  fowls  ? 
It  is  true  that  hens  usually  prefer  to  roost  in  the  trees 
rather  than  in  the  houses. 


170        POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Protection  from  Cold  and  Storms. — A  good  poultry 
house  should  afford  protection  from  storms  and  severe 
weather.  A  little  shelter  from  the  winds  and  the  storms 
will  add  to  the  comfort  of  the  fowls  and  therefore  to  the 
egg  yield.  A  cold  wave  or  a  sudden  change  to  colder 
weather,  means  an  immediate  demand  for  increased  fuel 
to  keep  up  the  heat  of  the  body.  In  this  case  the  fuel  is 
the  food  that  the  hen  eats,  and  the  food  that  has  been 


A  BOY  WITH  A  "SAFE"  HORSE  AND  "SPRING"  WAGON 
GATHERS  THE  EGGS 
Reardon  Farm,   Petaluma. 

going  into  the  making  of  the  eggs  will  be  drawn  upon  for 
fuel  purposes.  It  is  the  food  that  furnishes  the  heat  of 
the  body  as  well  as  the  material  for  eggs.  Any  shelter 
therefore  that  protects  fowls  from  storms  or  sudden 
changes  in  temperature  is  an  incentive  to  egg  production. 
Fowls  maintain  rugged  health  roosting  in  trees,  but  sudden 
and  frequent  changes  in  the  weather  to  which  they  are 
subjected  in  the  trees  interfere  with  egg  production. 

Storms  More  Objectionable  than  Cold. — In  most 
sections  under  most  climatic  conditions  fowls  will  spend 
their  nights  in  the  trees  in  preference  to  the  best  poultry 


HOUSING  OF  POULTRY  171 

houses.  Severe  storms — driving  snows  or  heavy  rains — 
will  send  them  into  the  house.  It  is  the  storm  more  than 
the  cold  that  the  hen  objects  to.  In  a  scratching  shed 
where  the  fowls  are  sheltered  from  the  wind  the  hen  will 
sing  and  keep  busy  all  day  with  the  temperature  at  zero; 
but  hard  winds,  even  on  a  summer  day,  will  drive  her  from 
her  picking  and  bug  hunting  in  the  fields  to  the  leeward 


A  REAR  VIEW  OF  THE  MISSOURI  HOUSE,  SHOWING  VENTILATION 

side  of  the  poultry  house,  where  she  will  stand  humped  up 
and  look  as  though  she  did  not  care  whether  school  kept  or 
not.  In  other  words,  you  can  keep  the  hen  busy  at  a  low 
temperature  if  she  is  sheltered  from  the  winds  and  storms. 
Feathers  will  keep  out  cold  but  will  not  keep  out  wind. 

On  one  occasion  I  watched  several  thousand  hens  at 
Petaluma  hunting  the  shelter  of  fences  during  the  middle 
of  the  day  to  escape  the  strong  breeze  that  was  blowing 
from  the  coast,  though  the  day  was  otherwise  nice  and 
sunshiny.  It  is  shelter  rather  than  warmth  that  the 
house  should  furnish.  If  the  proper  shelter  be  furnished 
the  hen  will  take  care  of  the  heating  apparatus.  All  notions 
of  the  warm  house  should  be  abandoned,  and  a  shelter 
built.  This  does  not  mean  that  warmth  is  injurious  to 
health  and  vigor.  Fowls  maintain  good  health  in  the/ 


172  POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

warm  months.  As  the  winter  departs  and  the  warm  spring 
days  come,  the  hen  is  at  her  best,  her  comb  is  the  reddest. 
Nor  does  it  mean  that  warmth  is  inimical  to  egg  produc- 
tion. In  the  writer's  experiments  at  the  Utah  Station  a 
little  artificial  heat  increased  the  egg  yield  (Bulletin  102), 
but  it  was  apparently  at  the  expense  of  vigor,  for  the 
fowls  in  the  cold  house  weighed  heavier  than  those  in  the 
warm  house  at  the  end  of  the  winter.  A  proper  system 
of  artificial  heat  may  stimulate  egg  production,  but  an 
economical,  and  safe  system  has  not  yet  been  found. 


THE  MISSOURI  POULTRY  STATION  HOUSE 
Ventilation  is  secured  by  slatted  shutter  and  by  opening  windows. 

A  warmly  built  house  cannot  be  made  warm  and  com- 
fortable without  artificial  heat  in  cold  weather.  Let  us 
see.  To  make  it  warm  the  practice  has  been  to  double 
board  it.  It  is  tight  boarded  on  each  side  of  the  studding, 
and  under  the  boards  there  is  building  paper  to  make  it  air- 
tight. Then  glass  windows  are  put  in  to  give  light  and 
sunshine,  and  there  must  be  double  windows  also.  If  the 
hens  are  to  have  fresh  air  there  must  be  openings  in  the 
walls  to  let  in  fresh  air  and  when  fresh  air  is  let  in  cold 
air  comes  in.  A  double  wall  of  that  kind,  even  without 
the  ventilation,  will  not  keep  out  the  cold.  It  will  keep 
it  out  a  little  longer  than  single  walls;  the  changes  in  the 


HOUSING  OF  POULTRY  173 

temperature  may  not  be  felt  so  soon  inside  the  warm 
house;  but  there  is  something  else  that  makes  houses  cold. 
The  thermometer  does  not  always  tell  us  how  cold  we  feel. 
It  does  not  always  tell  us  how  warm  we  feel.  Dampness 
in  the  air  in  the  summer  intensifies  the  heat. 

A  house  cannot  be  both  warm  and  dry  in  cold  weather 
without  artificial  heat.  "Why?  During  the  day  the  sun 
strikes  through  the  windows  and  raises  the  temperature 
inside.  At  night  the  heat  will  escape  through  the  glass. 
The  temperature  will  fall  rapidly  at  night.  There  will 
be  a  great  difference  between  night  and  day  temperature. 
Now,  warm  air  holds  more  moisture  than  cold  air.  During 
the  day  with  a  high  temperature  the  air  will  be  relatively 
dry ;  at  night  it  will  be  relatively  damp  though  the  same 
amount  of  moisture  may  be  in  the  air.  If  the  temper- 
ature falls  low  enough  the  moisture  in  the  air  will  con- 
dense on  the  walls.  Moisture  or  frost  on  the  walls  indi- 
cates that  the  air  in  the  room  is  as  damp  as  it  can  be ;  in 
other  words  it  is  totally  saturated.  It  also  means  that  the 
house  is  cold,  otherwise  it  would  not  condense.  A  warm 
house  that  is  at  the  same  time  dry  in  cold  weather  without 
artificial  heat,  is  an  impossible  proposition. 

A  damp  house  is  a  cold  house.  Chickens  can  stand  cold 
air,  but  not  cold  damp  air.  By  opening  the  windows 
during  the  day  we  keep  down  the  temperature  of  the 
house  and  this  keeps  the  air  drier.  Dampness  on  the 
walls  indicates  that  the  air  is  damp,  not  that  the  walls  were 
damp.  The  moisture  in  the  air  condenses  on  the  cold 
walls.  Dampness  is  taken  out  of  the  air  and  put  on  the 
walls.  The  moisture  was  taken  into  the  air  during  the 
day  when  the  temperature  went  up,  and  at  night  as  the 
temperature  falls  the  capacity  of  the  air  to  hold  the 
moisture  decreases  and  is  condensed  on  the  walls.  With 
more  ventilation  this  moisture  would  escape.  "With  such 


174  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

a  house  the  thing  to  do  is  to  keep  the  temperature  down 
during  the  day — equalize  the  temperature  more  between 
night  and  day  by  opening  the  doors  or  windows — and  you 
will  add  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  fowls. 

A  knowledge  of  this  fact  shows  at  once  how  futile  it  is 
to  build  double  walls  and  put  in  double  windows  with  the 
idea  of  making  the  house  comfortable;  it  shows  also  how 
we  may  save  about  half  the  cost  of  the  building.  It  means 
a  saving  in  cost  of  building  as  well  as  in  the  condition  of 
the  fowls  and  in  the  egg  yield. 

We  have  not  found  that  we  can  keep  enough  fowls  in  a 
house  to  keep  its  temperature  up  perceptibly.  Horses  and 
cattle  keep  a  stable  warm  from  the  heat  of  their  bodies, 
but  we  cannot  crowd  enough  chickens  into  a  poultry  house 
to  keep  it  at  the  same  temperature  of  the  horse  and  cattle 
barn  and  expect  the  fowls  to  maintain  good  health.  This 
shows  that  the  poultry  house  must  have  greater  ventilation, 
must  furnish  more  fresh  air  than  is  required  in  the  cow 
barn  or  in  the  living  room  of  human  beings.  There  must 
be  a  more  rapid  change  of  air  in  the  poultry  house  than 
in  the  horse  stable,  and  if  we  keep  exchanging  the  air 
rapidly  enough  by  means  of  ventilators  or  open  windows, 
there  will,  of  course  be  little  difference  between  the  tem- 
perature of  the  house  and  the  temperature  outdoors.  "We 
must  have  plenty  of  ventilation,  and  we  cannot  expect  to 
keep  the  house  warm  from  the  body  heat  of  the  fowls. 

The  attempt,  therefore,  to  reproduce  spring  in  winter, 
or  to  make  the  hen  imagine  in  mid-winter  that  the  natural 
laying  and  breeding  season  is  upon  her,  by  building  warm 
houses,  has  not  been  a  success.  The  failure  is  due  to  the 
wide  range  of  temperature  in  them.  The  "warm"  house 
is  a  hothouse  during  the  day  and  a  refrigerator  at  night, 
unless  artificial  heat  be  used.  A  so-called  warmly  built 
house  is  unreasonable  without  artificial  heat,  and  artificial 


HOUSING  OF   POULTRY  175 

heat,  in  our  present  state  of  knowledge,  is  also  unreason- 
able. 

Ventilation. — A  good  poultry  house  should  be  well  ven- 
tilated. Fowls  require  considerably  more  fresh  air  than 
farm  animals.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a  hen,  in  pro- 
portion to  her  weight,  requires  double  the  weight  of  oxygen 
that  a  man  or  a  horse  requires.  The  amount  of  air 
breathed  per  thousand  pounds  live  weight  of  hens  is  given 
by  King  as  8,272  cubic  feet  in  24  hours ;  the  requirements 
of  a  man  being  2,833  and  a  cow  2,804  cubic  feet. 

Experiments  at  the  Wye  (England)  Agricultural  Col- 
lege showed  that  the  health  of  the  fowls  bears  a  close  re- 
lation to  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  house. 
It  was  found  that  air  in  houses  with  proper  ventilation 
should  not  contain  to  exceed  nine  volumes  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  to  ten  thousand  volumes  of  air.  The  ordinary  air  in 
country  districts  contains  about  three  parts.  It  would  be 
impossible  to  arrange  ventilation  so  that  the  air  in  the 
poultry  house  would  be  as  pure  as  that  of  outdoors,  but 
from  the  experiments  quoted  it  is  safe  to  assume  that 
nine  parts  or  under  is  not  injurious. 

When  we  speak  of  air  being  impure  we  think  of  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  in  it,  yet  this  gas  in  itself  is  not  poison- 
ous. It  is  harmless,  but  associated  with  it  is  some  other 
impurity,  the  exact  nature  of  which  is  not  known,  that  is 
poisonous.  The  presence,  however,  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
is  a  sure  indication  that  the  air  is  impure. 

Ventilation,  therefore,  resolves  itself  into  a  question  of 
maintaining  a  low  carbonic  acid  gas  content  in  the  poultry 
house.  The  more  and  larger  the  openings  in  the  house, 
the  more  rapid  the  exchange  of  air  and  the  lower  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  content.  Reducing  the  number  of  fowls 
in  the  house  decreases  likewise  the  carbonic  acid  gas. 
Again,  weather  conditions  will  influence  the  amount.  In 


176  POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

cold  weather  there  will  be  necessarily  a  more  rapid  ex- 
change of  air  than  in  warm  weather.  Likewise  high  winds 
will  decrease  the  amount  bv  causing  a  greater  circulation 
of  air. 

Methods  of  Ventilation. — Elaborate  ventilation  systems 
are  not  called  for  in  poultry  house  construction.  Usually 
the  cost  of  such  systems  precludes  their  use  by  the  practical 
poultry-keeper.  For  the  larger  portion  of  the  United 
States  the  best  condition  of  ventilation  will  be  secured 
by  leaving  one  side  or  one  end  of  the  house  open. 

Open-Front  House. — In  sections  where  the  temperature 
gets  no  lower  than  zero  the  open-front  furnishes  the  best 
method  of  ventilation.  This  much  is  beyond  controversy. 
By  open  front  is  here  meant  a  house  with  one  side  en- 
tirely open  where  the  fowls  roost  practically  in  the  open 
air.  There  is,  however,  a  problem  as  to  how  low  a  tem- 
perature fowls  will  stand  and  maintain  a  satisfactory  egg 
production.  Ordinarily  zero  temperatures  will  not  injure 
their  health,  because  fowls  roost  in  the  trees  all  winter 
and  maintain  good  health  and  vigor,  but  when  the  tem- 
perature reaches  a  certain  degree  of  cold,  egg  production 
will  be  cut  off.  It  is  a  question  of  the  happy  medium,  and 
there  is  a  lack  of  definite  information  as  to  the  lowest 
temperature  in  the  open-front  house  at  which  fowls  may 
be  profitably  kept. 

Fowls,  however,  that  roost  continuously  in  a  cold  house 
become  hardy  and  stand  low  temperatures  better  than 
those  that  have  been  accustomed  to  warm  quarters.  Fresh 
air  furnishes  the  necessary  oxygen  to  keep  up  the  heat  of 
the  body.  The  more  pure  air  in  the  roosting  room  the 
better  will  the  fowls  be  able  to  stand  the  cold.  It  may 
further  be  said  that  this  method  of  ventilation  will  be 
better  in  any  section,  north  or  south;  will  give  better  re- 
sults both  in  egg  production  and  in  health  of  fowls,  than 


HOUSING  OF   POULTRY 


177 


that  type  of  ventilation  which  is  found  in  houses  that  have 
more  warmth  but  less  pure  air. 

Curtain-front  House. — The  curtain-front  house  has  also 
been  used  successfully  in  cold  climates.  Instead  of  leaving 
the  front  of  the  house  open  at  all  seasons  adjustable  cur- 
tains of  muslin  or  burlap  are  used.  They  are  closed  at 
night  as  necessary  during  the  winter.  The  objections  to 
the  adjustable  curtain  are,  first,  that  it  may  not  admit 
enough  air,  and  second  that  it  requires  nightly  attention 


OREGON  STATION'S  FIRST  OPEN-FRONT  COLONY  HOUSE 

in  cold  weather  to  adjust  it.  There  is  the  further  disad- 
vantage that  it  may  be  closed  or  open  when  it  should  be 
the  reverse,  as  the  temperature  or  weather  conditions  in 
the  evening  do  not  always  indicate  what  they  may  be 
before  morning.  In  other  words,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
close  the  curtain  in  the  evening  but  not  necessary  toward 
'the  morning,  or  the  reverse.  It  will  be  better  in  cold 
climates  to  keep  the  curtain  closed  continuously  during 
cold  weather.  "When  this  is  done  there  should  be  win- 
dows in  the  house  to  admit  light  and  sunshine. 


178 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


Adjustable  Open-front  House. — The  wide  open-front  is 
impracticable  in  sections  where  the  temperature  gets  much 
below  zero.  On  the  other  hand,  the  curtain-front  is  im- 
practicable for  reasons  stated.  The  curtain  may  be  elimi- 
nated by  using  a  modified  form  of  open-front.  By  de- 
creasing the  size  of  the  opening,  the  same  purpose  will  be 
served  as  by  covering  the  larger  opening  with  canvas  or 
burlap.  In  a  section  where  the  minimum  temperature  is 
zero,  one  side  of  the  house  may  be  practically  all  open. 
In  such  a  climate  sufficient  ventilation  for  fifty  fowls  will 


THE  IMPROVED  OREGON  STATION  PORTABLE  HOUSE,  ADMITTING 
MORE  LIGHT  AND  AIR 


be  obtained  by  an  opening  3x8  feet  or  24  square  feet  of 
opening  equal  to  about  one-half  square  foot  per  fowl.  In 
colder  climates,  with  a  temperature  of  20  below  zero,  the 
opening  may  be  decreased  to  a  fourth  or  a  fifth  the  size. 
A  small  opening  in  a  cold  climate  will  give  better  venti- 
lation than  a  larger  opening  in  a  warm  climate.  In  sum- 
mer the  opening  should  be  larger  than  in  winter. 

Space  Required  per  Fowl. — When  poultrymen  estimate 
the  capacity  of  their  poultry  house  on  the  basis  of  so  many 


HOUSING  OF  POULTRY  179 

square  feet  of  floor  space  per  fowl,  they  are  figuring  on  an 
insufficient  basis.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  enough  to  know 
that  8  or  10  square  feet  of  floor  space  had  given  good  re- 
sults and  half  that  poor  results ;  therefore  the  fowls  must 
have  8  to  10  square  feet  of  floor  space.  That  conclusion, 
however,  was  based  on  the  warinly  built,  double-boarded, 
poorly  ventilated  house.  Now  the  capacity  has  been  in- 
creased by  putting  more  openings  and  more  ventilation  into 
it,  and  the  fowls  do  as  well  with  4  square  feet  of  floor  space 
as  they  did  with  10  square  feet  in  the  old  houses.  The  rea- 


THE  OREGON   STATION   PULLET  TESTING  YARDS 
Showing  portable  open-front  houses. 

son  is  that  there  is  a  more  rapid  exchange  of  air,  or  more 
fresh  air  in  the  former  than  the  latter.  The  capacity  of  the 
house,  therefore,  should  be  measured  rather  on  a  basis  of 
purity  of  the  air  in  it  than  by  the  amount  of  floor  space. 

In  the  "Wye  experiments  it  was  found  that  in  the  winter 
months  with  the  temperature  near  zero  a  house  7%  x  7l/2 
feet  and  floor  space  of  l1/^  square  feet  per  fowl  gave  good 
results  when  ventilated  well.  The  carbonic  acid  gas  varied 
in  the  tests  from  4.8  to  8.5  parts  by  volume  in  10,000,  the 
latter  result  being  on  a  still  day.  The  air  changed  in  this 
house  about  four  times  an  hour.  It  was  concluded  that 
about  10  cubic  feet  of  air  space  and  1%  square  feet  floor 


180 


POULTRY  BREEDING   AND  MANAGEMENT 


space  in  a  house  with  proper  ventilation  are  essential,  and 
that  the  carbonic  acid  gas  content  should  not  exceed  nine 
parts  in  10,000  by  volume. 

The  capacity,  however,  of  any  particular  house  must  not 
be  determined  absolutely  by  a  standard  of  air  purity.  It 
must  also  provide  sufficient  space  for  the  activity  or  exer- 
cise of  the  hen.  Where  there  is  little  or  no  snow,  or  where 
the  chickens  can  be  out  of  doors  every  day  in  the  year,  about 
2  square  feet  of  floor  space  per  fowl  will  be  sufficient.  This 


SPECIAL  BREEDING  YARDS,   OREGON   STATION 

Showing  portable  open-front  houses,  portable  fencing  and  double  yards. 

will  apply  to  flocks  of  twenty  hens  or  more.  For  smaller 
flocks  a  more  liberal  allowance  of  space  should  be  made. 
"Where  the  climate  is  such  that  the  fowls  will  seek  shelter 
part  of  the  year  rather  than  go  out  of  doors  in  the  yards 
and  fields,  4  to  5  square  feet  per  fowl  should  be  provided. 
The  house  should  be  built  high  enough  for  a  man  to  work 
in  without  bumping  his  head.  The  height  will  allow  suffi- 
cient air  space  for  the  fowls. 

The  Final  Test  of  a  House. — The  egg  yield  is  the  best 
test  of  the  merits  of  a  poultry  house.  The  completeness  of 
the  egg  records  in  different  houses  may  well  form  the  basis 


HOUSING  OF   POULTRY  181 

for  a  study  of  the  relative  merits  of  different  kinds  of 
houses.  A  profitable  study  may  be  made  of  the  housing 
used  where  high  egg  records  have  been  secured. 

The  Australian  laying  competitions  conducted  at  the 
Hawkesbury  Agricultural  College  for  a  number  of  years 
have  produced  very  high  records.  The  houses  used  were 
small,  being  11  feet  long  and  6  feet  wide,  divided  into  two 


I 


A  COLONY  HOUSE  WITH  CURTAIN  WINDOWS 

At  the  Utah  Station  the  temperature  reached  12°  below  zero  and  the  Leghorns 
shown  in  the  picture  escaped  without  injury  to  their  combs. 

pens  for  six  fowls  each.  This  is  equal  to  5^  square  feet 
floor  space.  The  outside  yards  were  87  x  17  feet.  During 
the  winter  the  front  of  the  house  was  closed  up,  and  there 
were  wire  openings  at  the  bottom  of  the  back  of  the  house 
and  at  the  top.  The  fowls  had  more  yard  space  than  is 
usual  under  intensive  methods.  Here  we  have  a  small 
house  with  open  front  in  which  records  averaging  over  200 
eggs  per  fowl  were  secured.  The  climate  is  mild  there,  some- 


182 


POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 


what  similar  to  some  of  the  Southern  states  and  to  certain 
portions  of  the  Pacific  coast. 

At  the  Utah  Station  excellent  records  were  secured  under 
more  intensive  conditions.  The  house  was  100  feet  long 
and  10  feet  wide,  divided  into  pens  5x7  feet,  leaving  an 
alley  at  the  back.  The  outside  runs  were  5  x  40.  There 
was  a  glass  window  in  each  pen  which  was  opened  during 


A  SCRATCHING  SHED 

This  shed  is  an  advantage  where  house  room  is  limited.  The  ventilation^  in 
this  house  is  secured  through  the  door,  which  is  covered  with  poultry  netting 
only,  and  between  the  plate  and  roof  at  the  rear. 

the  day  except  during  severe  cold  weather.  Here  with  7 
square  feet  floor  space  and  40  feet  yard  space,  one  pen 
averaged  201  eggs,  and  individual  records  as  high  as  241 
were  secured.  At  the  Oregon  Station  the  portable  colony 
house  has  been  used  exclusively.  This  house  is  8  x  12  feet 
with  open  front.  A  pen  average  of  212  eggs  from  40  fowls 
was  secured,  with  an  individual  record  of  303.  The  yard 
space  was  about  150  square  feet  per  fowl,  the  house  being 
moved  once  during  the  year  on  to  another  yard  of  equal 
size. 


HOUSING  OF   POULTRY  183 

Iii  the  Missouri  laying  competition,  a  well-ventilated, 
small  house  was  used.  In  this  house  Lady  Showyou  made 
her  remarkable  record.  The  Storrs  laying  competition 
house  is  also  a  small,  separate  house.  In  this  house  Tom 
Barron's  Leghorns  and  Wyandottes  made  their  great  re- 
cords. The  highest  record  secured  at  Cornell  University, 
that  of  Lady  Cornell,  was  made  in  a  small  house.  At  the 
Ontario  Agricultural  College  the  best  records  were  made  in 
a  small  house. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  good  egg  yields  have  been  secured  in 
houses  of  different  construction.  Namely,  in  long,  con- 


A  CHEAP  SHED 

In  this  shed  a  pen  of  two-year-old  Leghorns  were  housed  for  a  year.     One  of 
them  laid  over  200  eggs.     Lowest  temperature  about  zero.  (Oregon  Station.) 

tinuous  houses,  and  in  small  colony  houses  of  different 
types.  All  of  the  houses,  however,  have  been  either  open- 
front  or  curtain-front.  As  between  the  continuous  or  long 
house  and  the  small  or  colony  house,  while  good  records 
have  been  secured  in  both,  most  of  the  good  records, 
and  all  of  the  high  records,  have  come  from  colony  or  small, 
separate  houses. 

Hatching  Quality  of  Eggs  as  Affected  by  Housing. — 
The  kind  of  house  and  the  conditions  of  housing  have  a 
marked  influence  on  the  fertility  of  the  eggs  and  their 
hatching  quality.  The  hatching  quality  of  the  eggs  is  even 


184  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

more  dependent  upon  good  housing  conditions  than  is  the 
egg  yield.  A  system  of  housing  may  be,  in  a  measure,  suc- 
cessful so  far  as  egg  yield  goes,  but  it  may  be  a  failure  when 
it  comes  to  securing  eggs  of  good  fertility  and  that  will 
produce  chicks  of  good  vitality.  The  poultryman  may  be 
successful  in  getting  eggs,  but  fail  in  getting  chicks  and  in 
the  business  of  reproducing  his  nock.  Under  some  systems 
of  close  confinement  in  houses  he  may  get  a  satisfactory 
egg  yield  if  he  puts  into  the  house  fowls  of  strong  vitality, 


COLONY  HOUSES  ON  THE  ALMY  POULTRY  FARM,  LITTLE 
COMPTON,  RHODE  ISLAND 

but  the  chances  are  that  the  breeding  or  hatching  quality  of 
the  eggs  will  not  be  as  good  as  where  the  fowls  have  wide 
range. 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  make  a  permanent  suc- 
cess of  poultry-keeping  where  the  fowls  are  confined  in 
houses  all  the  time  if  the  eggs  from  the  same  stock  are  used 
for  breeding  purposes.  If  it  is  desirable  to  confine  laying 
stock  in  such  houses  the  layers  should  be  produced  by 
breeding  stock  kept  under  more  or  less  free-range  condi- 
tions. The  natural  tendency  to  enfeeblement  under 


HOUSING   OF   POULTRY 


185 


domestication  asserts  itself  more  clearly  and  strongly  in  the 
breeding  qualities  of  the  fowls  than  in  their  laying  qual- 
ities. 

The  Floor. — Floors  are  not  always  necessary  nor  desir- 
able in  poultry  houses.  "Where  the  ground  is  inclined  to 
be  damp,  a  floor  will  be  an  advantage,  but  where  it  is  well 
drained  and  porous  there  need  be  no  floor.  Fowls  prefer  to 
scratch  on  the  ground  rather  than  on  the  floor.  A  wooden 
floor  gives  protection  for  rats  underneath,  and  for  this  rea- 
son a  cement  floor  is  preferable.  Where  an  earth  floor  is 
used  it  should  be  higher  than  the  ground  outside  the  house 
to  prevent  water  running  in.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  fill  the 
floor  with  6  or  8  inches  of  clean,  coarse  sand  and  once  a  year 
or  oftener  take  off  part  of  this  and  replace  it  with  clean 
sand.  This  will  keep  the  floor  comparatively  clean  and 
sanitary. 

The  Roof. — There  are  three  types  of  roofs  generally 
used,  namely,  the  shed  roof,  the  gable  roof,  and  the  combin- 
ation roof. 

Shed  Roof. — Practically  the  same  amount  of  material 
will  be  required  for  each  style  of  roof,  if  the  ground  plan 
and  the  air  space  con- 
tent of  the  house  are 
the  same.  There 
will  be  a  little  less 
labor  in  constructing 
the  shed  roof  than  the 
others.  The  type  of 
roof  used  will  depend 
mainly  on  the  width  of 
the  house  and  the  pitch 
of  the  roof.  If  shingles 

-,  PIANO   BOXES    UTILIZED*  FOR    HEN 

are  used,  a  comparative-  HOUSES 

ly     Steep     roof     mUSt     be      Two  such  boxes  used  in  making  this  house. 


186  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

made,  about  one-third  pitch.  If  roofing  material  is  used 
instead  of  shingles,  a  roof  nearly  flat  may  be  made.  An- 
other advantage  of  the  shed  roof  is  that  the  rain  drains 
off  at  the  back  of  the  house.  This  will  obviate  much 
of  the  mud,  caused  by  the  dripping  from  the  roof,  without 
the  use  of  eave  troughs. 

A  shed  roof  house  may  be  made  as  much  as  14  feet  wide. 
For  a  house  of  that  width  to  be  shingled  a  gable  roof  of 
one-third  pitch  should  be  used.  In  most  sections  the  cost 
of  the  roof  will  be  lessened  by  making  it  comparatively 
flat  and  covering  it  with  roofing  material.  In  sections 
where  shingles  are  cheaper  there  will  be  little  difference  in 
the  cost  between  the  shingles  and  a  good  quality  of  roofing 
paper.  The  cost  of  laying  the  shingles,  however,  is  greater 
than  for  laying  the  roofing  paper.  Heavy  tar  or  rubber 
roofing  should  be  used.  A  good  shingle  roof  is  the  most 
durable  type  of  roof,  though  roofing  papers  are  now  made 
of  good  quality.  It  takes  750  shingles  for  each  square  of 
100  square  feet,  laid  5  inches  to  the  weather.  A  man  can 
lay  about  3,000  to  6,000  shingles  a  day,  the  latter  by  an 
expert  shingler  working  on  a  large  roof. 

Foundation  and  Floor. — Where  a  permanent  or  station- 
ary house  is  to  be  built,  it  will  pay  to  put  in  a  good  foun- 
dation. Either  brick,  stone  or  concrete  may  be  used,  de- 
pending mainly  on  the  cheapness  of  these  materials. 


CHAPTER  X 

KIND  OF  HOUSE  TO  BUILD 

Poultry  houses  may  be  divided  into  two  classes :  1,  port- 
able houses;  2,  stationary  houses. 

Portable  House. — The  portable  house  is  used  where  the 
colony  system  prevails.  Much  of  the  trouble  from  diseases 
comes  from  keeping  the  chickens  on  the  same  ground  year 
after  year.  By  keeping  them  on  clean  ground,  which  is 
possible  with  portable  houses,  they  are  under  natural  and 
hygienic  conditions.  This  system,  moreover,  fits  in  with  a 
system  of  crop  rotation  on  the  farm.  About  fifty  fowls  to 
the  acre  will  keep  the  land  in  high  fertility.  Besides,  the 
chickens  will  find  a  considerable  portion  of  their  food  in 
the  waste  grain  and  weed  seeds,  grasshoppers  and  other  in- 
sects. They  often  rid  the  farm  of  grasshoppers  and  other 
injurious  insects,  thus  saving  valuable  crops.  Another  im- 
portant advantage  of  the  colony  house  system  is  the  fact 
that  the  fowls  are  more  active  when  they  have  the  liberty 
of  fresh  fields  than  when  confined  in  yards.  Finally,  with 
the  colony  system  there  is  no  expense  for  fencing.  "Where 
fowls  are  kept  on  an  extensive  scale  this  system  is  un- 
doubtedly the  best. 

While  the  advantages  of  the  colony  portable  house  are 
more  apparent  in  sections  where  there  is  little  or  no  snow- 
fall in  winter,  they  may  also  be  used  where  the  snow  covers 
the  ground  in  northern  sections  several  months  during  the 
winter.  In  such  cases  it  is  usually  advisable  to  pull  the 
houses  near  together  to  avoid  the  inconvenience  of  the  deep 

187 


188  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


TEONT  ELEVATION 


CONCEE.TF.     FM>o* 


GEOUND     PLAN 


END.  SECTION 

STATIONARY    100-HEN    HOUSE.       (OREGON    STATION.) 


KIND   OF   HOUSE   TO   BUILD 


189 


snows.  When  the  snow  covers  the  ground  and  the  fowls 
have  not  the  use  of  the  range,  being  practically  confined  to 
the  house,  they  will  do  just  as  well  when  the  houses  are 
brought  together. 

Stationary  House. — "Where  little  land  is  available,  sta- 
tionary houses  may  be  used.  The  portable  house,  shown 
on  page  193  may  serve  as  a  stationary  house  for  a  small 
flock.  For  larger  flocks  either  a  long,  continuous  house 
may  be  used,  or  small,  separate  houses.  The  separate  houses 
may  be  placed  in  a  row  40  feet  apart.  By  this  arrangement 


A  CURTAIN-FRONT  HOUSE 

Built  by  A.  F.  Hunter,  at  Abington,  Mass.  The  curtains  are  shown  in  the 
second  pen.  This  is  a  modification  of  the  scratching  shed-house  of  which  Mr. 
Hunter  was  the  originator. 


the  yards  may  all  be  on  one  side  of  the  house,  and  one  can 
walk  or  drive  a  team  on  the  other  side  from  one  end  to  the 
other  without  opening  of  gates.  Another  advantage  of  this 
arrangement  is  this:  by  having  every  other  yard  vacant 
the  trouble  from  males  fighting  through  the  fence  is  avoid- 
ed. Another  advantage  is  that  there  is  less  danger  of  con- 
tagious diseases  spreading  from  one  flock  to  another  than 
in  the  continuous  house ;  every  flock  is  practically  isolated 
from  the  other. 


190  POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

Keeping  large  flocks  in  a  long,  stationary  house  requires 
less  time  for  the  feeding  and  caring  for  the  fowls  than  in 
portable  houses  scattered  widely  apart  over  the  farm.  It 
does  not  necessarily  follow,  however,  that  the  advantages  in 
this  regard  are  all  in  favor  of  the  long,  stationary  house. 
The  profit  in  the  business  does  not  hinge  altogether  or 
mainly  on  the  convenience  of  the  attendant  or  on  the 
amount  of  time  necessary  to  do  the  actual  work  in  feeding 
and  caring  for  the  fowls.  The  final  result  must  hinge  rather 
on  the  results  or  on  the  returns  in  egg  yield  from  a  given 
amount  of  labor. 

The  portable  house  and  free-range  system  is  most  con- 
ducive to  health  and  vigor  in  the  stock,  and  in  the  long 
run  the  financial  results  must  be  decided  in  favor  of  the 
system  most  favorable  to  vigor.  A  man  may  care  for  more 
fowls  in  a  long,  stationary  house  than  under  the  free-range 
colony  house  system,  but  in  a  series  of  years  will  there  be 
greater  return  in  egg  yield  from  his  labor  than  from  the 
labor  of  the  man  who  keeps  his  fowls  under  the  exten- 
sive free-range  system?  The  greater  risk  from  loss  of 
vigor,  from  death,  from  contagious  disease,  from  lower 
fertility  of  eggs,  and  greater  mortality  in  the  chicks  makes 
it  certain  that  in  ten  years,  more  or  less,  there  will  be  a 
greater  return  from  the  labor  on  the  colony  free-range 
farm. 

It  is  possible  that  under  certain  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate  the  long,  stationary  house  system  may  be  successful 
for  a  long  term,  such  as  in  sections  of  maximum  sunshine 
and  on  porous  soils.  The  sunshine  will  ward  off  many 
bacterial  diseases  which  would  be  more  common  where  there 
is  not  very  much  sunshine.  Again,  in  a  very  porous  soil, 
soil  contamination  has  not  the  same  dangers  as  in  heavy 
clay  soils.  The  poultryman  who  uses  stationary  houses  and 
follows  the  intensive  system  must  utilize  to  the  utmost  tho 


KIND   OF   HOUSE   TO   BUILD  191 

assistance  of  the  sunshine  in  warding  off  diseases  which  in 
many  sections  of  the  country  have  followed  in  the  wake  of 
intensive  poultry  culture. 

Cultivation  of  Yards. — If  the  intensive  system  be  used 
it  is  imperative  that  it  include  a  system  of  cultivation  or 
crop  rotation.  To  allow  the  fowls  to  run  in  large  numbers 
on  the  same  ground,  year  after  year,  without  any  cultiva- 
tion and  growth  of  crops  will  result  in  certain  failure.  The 
cultivation  and  cropping  of  the  yards  will  keep  them  in 
good  condition.  The  crops  will  use  up  the  manure  and 
lessen  the  danger  from  spreading  of  disease.  The  cultiva- 
tion also  keeps  the  surface  of  the  soil  loose;  unless  culti- 
vated, some  soils  of  a  clayey  nature  will,  from  continuous 
use,  become  hard  and  packed.  The  expense  of  building  the 
extra  fence  for  the  double  yards  will  be  offset  by  the  value 
of  the  crops  that  may  be  grown  on  the  vacant  yards.  Cul- 
tivation has  a  double  purpose;  first,  it  cleans  the  yards; 
second,  it  offers  the  fowls  more  exercise.  Whether  it  will 
require  cropping  every  year  or  every  other  year,  or  twice 
a  year,  will  dep'end  first  on  the  nature  of  the  soil;  second 
on  climatic  conditions,  and  third  on  the  number  of  fowls 
kept  on  the  ground.  The  control  of  tuberculosis  is  render- 
ed comparatively  easy  by  crop  rotation  and  keeping  the 
fowls  off  the  ground  for  six  months  each  year. 

Capacity  of  an  Acre. — A  light,  porous  soil  has  a  greater 
capacity  for  fowls  than  a  heavy  soil  or  a  damp  soil.  At  the 
Oregon  Station  on  clay  soil  it  was  found  that  the  day  drop- 
pings from  200  laying  hens  on  an  acre  in  four  years  made 
the  soil  too  rich  for  the  successful  growth  of  cereal  crops 
where  cropping  the  ground  was  done  every  other  year.  The 
night  droppings  were  put  onto  other  land.  If  the  soil  con- 
tains too  much  manure  for  the  crops  it  is  safe  to  assume 
that  it  is  not  in  the  best  condition  for  poultry.  Sooner  or 
later  it  is  bound  to  show  not  only  a  failure  of  grain  crops 


192  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

but  failure  of  poultry  crops.  For  a  permanent  system 
under  average  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  the  following 
points  are  suggested  for  consideration. 

1.  Maximum  number  of  fowls  per  acre :  100  laying  hens. 

2.  Disposing  of  the  night  droppings  on  other  land. 

3.  Dividing  the  ground  into  at  least  two  divisions  or 
yards,  and  growing  a  crop  on  each  yard  at  least  every 
other  year.     In  sections  where  crops  may  be  grown  every 
year  the  maximum  number  of  fowls  may  be  increased. 

4.  Growing  crops  that  will  use  up  the  maximum  amount 
of  manure. 

5.  Keeping  the  ground  vacant  at  least  six  months  in  the 
year. 

6.  Thorough  underdrainage,  where  necessary,  to  carry 
off  surplus  water. 

The  above  points  are  suggested  as  worthy  of  careful  at- 
tention where  more  or  less  intensive  poultry-keeping  is  to 
be  followed  and  where  the  location  is  expected  to  be  a  per- 
manent one.  It  cannot  be  assumed  that  they  will  be  appli- 
cable or  practicable  under  all  conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 
But  under  average  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  they  af- 
ford a  safe  basis  of  estimating  the  capacity  of  an  acre  in  a 
permanent  system  of  poultry  culture.  It  is  not  assumed 
that  as  many  as  500  hens  may  not  be  profitably  kept  on  an 
acre  for  a  few  years  under  favorable  conditions.  It  has 
been  done,  but  it  is  a  different  matter  when  it  is  planned  to 
make  a  permanent  business  of  it. 

Crops  to  Grow. — Different  kinds  of  crops  or  vegetables 
may  be  grown  on  the  vacant  yards.  Green  food  may  be 
grown  for  the  fowls,  or  vegetables  may  be  grown  for  the 
family.  The  droppings  of  the  fowls  will  keep  the  soil  in  a 
very  productive  condition.  If  it  is  not  desired  to  use  the 
yards  for  garden  purposes,  such  crops  as  vetch,  clover,  kale, 


KIND   OF   HOUSE   TO   BUILD  193 

rye,  etc.,  may  be  grown.  Where  it  grows  well,  clover  may 
be  sown  early  in  the  spring  and  the  chickens  turned  on 
it  in  the  fall.  Vetch  sown  in  the  fall  will  furnish  a  great 
quantity  of  excellent  green  food  in  the  spring  and  summer. 
Where  it  thrives,  probably  no  other  forage  plant  will  fur- 
nish more  green  food  per  acre  than  the  thousand-headed 
kale.  If  planted  early  in  the  spring,  it  will  furnish  a 
great  quantity  of  green  food  in  the  fall  and  following 
winter.  Eye  sown  in  the  fall  will  make  considerable  green 
food  in  the  following  spring  and  summer. 

NOTE. — In  a  personal  letter  to  the  writer  Edward 
Brown  says:  "For  those  who  keep  their  fowls  within 
restricted  areas,  I  believe  we  shall  have  to  come  to  a 
four-course  rotation,  fowls  being  one  part  to  three  others, 
by  which  is  meant,  supposing  we  have  four  acres  of 
land  divided,  the  fowls  shall  occupy  one  acre  only  each 
year  and  no  more,  the  three  vacant  lots  being  culti- 
vated. In  some  cases  the  three-course  rotation  has  been 
tried,  but  that  does  not  seem  to  get  rid  of  the  manure 
completely.  However,  it  is  a  question  of  experiment 
and  therefore  your  observations  are  very  important. " 

Portable  Colony  House. — A  good  size  for  a  colony  house 
is  8  x  12  feet.  A  team  of  horses  will  pull  a  house  of  this 
size  and  it  will  accommodate  from  30  to  50  fowls.  Thirty 
to  36  fowls  will  be  enough  in  northern  states,  where  the 
fowls  have  not  the  liberty  of  outdoors  all  the  time.  This 
house  is  built  on  runners  and  may  be  moved  several  times 
a  year.  It  will  cost  to  build,  about  $15  for  lumber,  $5  for 
hardware  and  paint,  and  $10  for  carpenter  work,  the  cost 
varying  in  different  localities  as  the  prices  of  material 
vary. 

On  page  177  is  shown  the  kind  of  house  used  at  the  Oregon 


194  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

Station  up  to  the  fall  of  1913.  If  the  proof  of  the  pudding 
is  in  the  eating,  this  Louse  has  been  satisfactory.  An  aver- 
age of  over  200  eggs  per  hen  has  been  secured  in  this  house 
with  a  flock  of  40  hens,  and  it  was  in  this  house  that  hen 
C521  made  a  record  of  303  eggs  in  a  year. 

Improved  Oregon  Station  House. — This  house,  how- 
ever, has  been  modified  with  the  idea  of  furnishing  a  still 
more  copious  supply  of  fresh  air.  A  study  of  conditions 
led  to  the  opinion  that  the  exchange  of  air  at  night  in  the 
roosting  end  of  the  house  was  not  rapid  enough  for  the 
number  of  fowls  in  the  house.  For  thirty  fowls  the  ven- 
tilation is  ample,  but  for  forty  or  fifty  it  was  decided  that 
the  fowls  were  too  close  together  to  avoid  re-breathing  the 
exhaled  impure  air.  It  had  been  noted  that  several  of  the 
highest  record  hens  at  the  Station  had  roosted  close  to  the 
door  on  a  step  up  to  the  trapnests.  Hen  C543,  with  a 
record  of  291  eggs ;  C508,  with  record  of  268 ;  A122,  with 
record  of  259,  and  a  number  of  other  high-record  hens  had 
formed  this  habit  of  roosting  at  the  open  door  instead  of 
back  among  the  other  fowls  on  the  perches.  This  was  roost- 
ing practically  in  the  open  air  so  far  as  fresh  air  was  con- 
cerned, and  it  might  lead  to  the  inquiry  as  to  whether 
fresh  air  is  not,  in  itself,  a  good  egg  producer. 

The  improved  colony  house  is  shown  on  page  178.  In 
the  cooler  parts  of  the  north  or  where  the  temperature  gets 
down  to  zero  and  snow  covers  the  ground  two  or  three 
months  of  the  year,  and  for  30  to  35  fowls,  the  house  with 
the  end  open  instead  of  the  side  is  probably  preferable, 
because  where  the  temperature  is  lower  there  will  be  natur- 
ally a  more  rapid  exchange  of  air.  In  warmer  sections  the 
house  with  the  side  open  instead  of  the  end  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. In  this  house  single  walls  are  used  made  of  rustic 
siding.  Trapnests  are  placed  under  the  dropping  platform. 
Nests  may  be  placed  at  the  end  wall  of  the  house,  in  which 


KIND  OF   HOUSE  TO  BUILD  195 

case  the  roosts  and  platform  should  be  lowered  10  or  12 
inches.  A  three-quarter  inch  hole  is  bored  through  the 
ends  of  the  runners.  Bolts  are  placed  through  these  holes  and 
a  chain  attached  for  moving  the  house.  A  team  of  horses 
pulls  the  house.  No  curtains  are  used.  The  opening  and 
door  are  covered  with  1-inch  mesh  wire.  The  dimensions 
and  bill  of  lumber  and  hardware  follow: 


BILL  OF  MATERIALS  FOR  PORTABLE  COLONY  HOUSE, 
8  FT.  X   12  FT. 

Lumber 

2  3x6  14  feet  long  runners. 

2  4x4    8  feet  long  sills. 

5  2x4     8  feet  long  sills. 

14  2x3     5  feet  long  studs. 

4  2x3     7  feet  long  studs. 

2  2x3     8  feet  long  studs. 

3  2x3  12  feet  long  plates. 
14  2x3     6  feet  long  rafters. 

8  2x3  12  feet  long  nest  frames,  etc. 

2  2x2  12  feet  long  roosts. 

3  2x2     3  feet  long  roost  supports. 

175  board  feet  8  inch  ship    lap    for    flooring    and    dropping 

boards. 
125  board  feet  6  inch  roosting  boards  and  slats  for  dropping 

boards. 

260  board  feet  8  inch  channel  rustic  siding  No.  2. 
1,250  shingles. 

4  1x4  corner  boards,  each  6  feet  long. 

4  1x3  corner  boards,  each  6  feet  long. 

5  1x3  door  and  door  opening,  each  12  feet  long. 
2  1x4  14  feet  long  cornice  finish. 

4  1x4     6  feet  long  cornice  finish. 
1  1x3  14  feet  long  ridge  board. 

1  1x4  14  feet  long  ridge  board. 

5  1x4  16  feet  long  miscellaneous  use. 

1  1x2  14  feet  long  stops  for  oil-can  nests, 


196  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

Hardware 
6  Ibs.  8D  case. 
10  Ibs.  8D  common. 

3  Ibs.  16D  common. 

4  Ibs.  shingle  nails. 

1  pair  of  strap  hinges. 
6  feet  of  heavy  wire. 

18  feet  of  1  inch  mesh  wire  for  door  and  front. 
8  10x10x15  oil-cans  for  nests. 
2-3  of  one  end  cut-out. 
4       xlO  anchor  bolts. 


The  Nests.  —  Nests  for  laying  hens  should  be  somewhat 
secluded,  for  fowls  are  less  liable  to  acquire  the  egg-eating 
habit  when  the  nests  are  in  a  darkened  place.  They  should 
be  from  10  x  12  to  12  x  14  inches  in  size  and  8  to  10  inches 
high,  the  larger  breeds  requiring  the  larger  size.  A  cheap 
and  serviceable  nest  may  be  made  out  of  a  five-gallon  oil 
can  by  cutting  the  end  out,  leaving  about  3  inches  at  the 
bottom  to  keep  the  nest  material  in  the  nest.  Such  a  nest 
can  be  easily  cleaned  either  by  scalding  or  spraying.  The 
illustration  shows  top  of  can  taken  off;  this  makes  the  nest 
more  roomy.  Several  of  these  nests  may  be  set  on  a  plat- 
form about  2  feet  from  the  floor,  turning  the  entrance  of 
the  nest  toward  the  wall  and  leaving  a  space  of  8  inches 
between  the  nest  and  the  wall  for  the  hens  to  walk  along. 
The  nest  platform  should  be  nailed  to  a  cleat  on  the  side 
of  the  house  and  braced  from  top  of  sill.  Over  the  nests, 
to  keep  the  chickens  from  standing  on  them  and  to  help 
to  darken  them,  is  fitted  a  sloping  top.  This  top  should  be 
built  high  enough,  so  that  the  attendant  can  see  into  the 
nests  from  the  rear.  Ten  nests  to  fifty  hens  should  gener- 
ally be  provided. 

Another  plan  for  nests  frequently  adopted  is  to  place 
them  under  the  droppings  platform  high  enough  to  permit 
the  hens  to  have  full  use  of  the  floor.  If  this  plan  is  follow- 


KIND   OF   HOUSE   TO   BUILD 


197 


K  '";     - 


ed  it  will  be  necessary  to  raise  the  platform  3  feet  from  the 
floor.  This  is  higher  than  desirable,  especially  for  the 
heavier  breeds,  as  they  are  liable  to  injure  themselves  in 
jumping  to  the  floor  from  the  roosts.  However,  there  is 
little  danger  from  this  in  a  house  without  a  floor  or  with 
a  floor  if  it  be  covered  deeply  with  litter  as  it  should  be. 
The  coal  oil  can  nests  may  be  used  under  the  platform,  or 
a  row  of  nests  may  be  made  with  lumber.  "Whatever  is  used, 
they  should  be  made  in 
a  way  that  they  may  be 
easily  removed  for  clean- 
ing and  disinfecting. 

Another  plan  for 
nests  more  desirable 
than  either  in  mild  sec- 
tions where  the  fowls  are 
out  of  doors  all  the  year, 
is  to  put  them  outside 
the  house  either  on  the 
end  or  side  of  the  house 
least  exposed  to  rains  or 
the  hot  sun.  Still  an- 
other plan  is  illustrated  in  a  Utah  colony  house.  In  this  case 
the  nests  are  placed  in  the  back  wall  of  the  house.  The  hens 
enter  from  the  inside,  while  eggs  are  gathered  from  the  out- 
side. 

Separate  Laying  House. — Where  the  colony  system  is 
used,  as  in  Petaluma,  Cal.,  a  separate  laying  house  has 
many  advantages.  It  may  be  used  in  part  for  feed  storage 
and  feed  hoppers.  The  space  in  the  roosting  house  is  all 
used  for  roosting  or  taken  up  with  perches ;  the  nests  must 
either  be  on  the  outside  wall  of  the  house  or  in  a  separate 
house  for  that  purpose.  On  the  large  Petaluma  ranches  no 
scratching  houses  are  used,  dependence  being  placed  on  the 


NESTS    UNDER    THE    DROPPING 
PLATFORM 

The  front  board  is  hinged  at  the  bottom  and 
is  shown  open  for  gathering  the  eggs. 


198 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


free  range  furnishing  the  necessary  exercise.  With  heavy 
breeds,  however,  scratching  sheds  should  also  be  provided. 
Broody  Coop. — Where  an  empty  pen  or  yard  is  not 
available,  a  broody  coop  should  be  provided  for  the  broody 
hens.  This  may  be  made  from  an  ordinary  box  with  a  floor 
of  slats.  The  slats  make  it  cleaner  and  also  prevent  the 
hen  sitting.  Cold  air  circulating  underneath  will  also  help 
to  overcome  the  brooding  tendency.  At  the  first  symptoms 
of  broodiness  the  hen  should  be  removed  to  the  broody  coop, 


A  GOOD  BROODY  COOP 
On  farm  of  H.  A.  George*  Petaluma. 

unless  wanted  for  hatching.  This  coop  may  be  hung  on  the 
wall  inside  the  house  if  there  is  room  enough,  otherwise  it 
may  be  hung  outdoors  on  the  shady  side  of  the  house  or  in 
some  other  convenient  place.  If  there  is  a  vacant  yard 
available  it  is  a  good  plan  to  use  that  for  breaking  up  the 
broody  hens.  Where  large  numbers  of  fowls  are  kept  and 
broodiness  becomes  a  considerable  problem,  a  separate 
house  built  for  that  purpose  may  be  used,  such  as  illus- 
trated above. 
The  Trapnest. — The  main  or  essential  points  in  a  good 


KIND   OF   HOUSE  TO  BUILD  199 

trapnest  are  simplicity,  cheapness,  and  accuracy  in  opera- 
tion. The  Oregon  Station  trapnest  has  been  in  use  12 
years  (Utah  Station  Bulletin  92  and  Oregon  Station  Cir- 
cular 4).  As  the  hen  enters  this  nest  her  weight  closes  the 
door,  making  it  impossible  for  her  to  get  out  or  another 
hen  to  enter.  The  opening  in  the  nest  is  made  just  large 
enough  for  one  hen  at  a  time  to  enter. 

It  is  necessary  to  visit  the  nests  several  times  during  the 
day  to  release  the  hens,  and  there  should  be  enough  nests 
so  that  there  will  always  be  some  vacant,  otherwise  eggs  are 
liable  to  be  laid  on  the  floor.  For  a  flock  of  fifty  hens,  10 
or  12  nests  will  be  sufficient  if  they  are  visited  often  enough. 

The  nests  may  be  built  singly  or  in  groups.  They  may 
be  set  in  the  wall  of  the  house,  or  inside  the  wall.  They 
may  also  be  made  and  set  up  outside,  separate  from  the 
house.  It  is  sometimes  an  advantage  to  release  the  hens 
from  the  top  instead  of  through  the  door.  This  can  be 
done  where  there  is  only  one  tier  of  nests.  Occasionally  a 
hen  is  slow  in  coming  to  the  door  to  be  let  out,  and  by  pull- 
ing the  nest  out  or  raising  the  cover,  the  operation  of  releas- 
ing the  hens  may  be  more  quickly  performed.  With  the 
small,  active  breeds  there  is  not  much  trouble  on  this  score. 
They  come  quickly  to  the  door.  The  heavier  breeds,  like 
the  Plymouth  Rock,  usually  take  their  time  in  coming  out, 
and  sometimes  have  to  be  pulled  out.  Where  they  can  be 
reached  from  the  top  this  trouble  is  overcome. 

The  dimensions  given  are  for  small  fowls  and  medium- 
sized  fowls  up  to  about  six  pounds.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
add  an  inch  or  two  to  the  dimensions  for  the  large  breeds 
and  increase  the  size  or  width  of  opening  for  the  door. 

How  to  Make  It. — The  Oregon  trapnest  can  be  made 
by  any  one  who  can  use  a  saw  and  drive  a  nail.  It  can  be 
cut  out  of  a  12-inch  board,  10  feet  long.  The  material  con- 
sists of:  one  board  1  x  12  inches  x  10  feet;  six  screw  eyes, 


THE  OREGON  STATION  TRAPNEST 
Trapnesting  is  revolutionizing  poultry  breeding. 


KIND   OF   HOUSE   TO   BUILD 


201 


No.  210  bright ;  two  pieces  of  iron  rod  3-16  x  12  inches,  and 
two  pieces  belt  lacing  9x^/2  inches. 

Yards. — If  the  poultry  houses  are  located  near  a  neigh- 
bor's fields  or  yards,  it  will  be  necessary  to  yard  the  fowls. 
For  other  reasons,  such,  as  the  keeping  of  more  than  one 
variety  or  strain  of  fowls,  separate  fenced  enclosures  must 
be  maintained.  "Where  these  reasons  do  not  exist,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  give  the  fowls 
free  range,  either  in 
large  or  small  flocks 
or  in  large  or  small 
houses.  They  will 
do  better  running 
together,  as  many  as 
500  in  a  flock,  on 
free  range  than  if 
separated  into  yards 
with  fifty  or  100  in 
each.  The  house 
may  be  divided  into 
pens  with  partitions 
between  each,  and  50 
or  100  fowls  in  each 
pen.  When  once  ac- 
customed to  their 
pen  they  will  usual- 
ly go  back  to  their 
own  roosting  places. 

Importance  of  Keeping  the  Yards  Clean. — When  chick- 
ens are  confined  throughout  the  year  in  yards,  care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  the  yards  clean,  otherwise  there  will  in 
time  be  serious  losses  from  diseases  and  general  loss  in 
vitality.  "When  they  are  kept  year  after  year  on  the  same 
ground  the  yards  sooner  or  later  become  contaminated  with 


LADY   MACDUFF 

Being  taken  from  the  trapnest  when  she  laid 
her  303d  egg. 


202  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

disease-producing  germs,  and  losses  through  sickness  and 
decrease  in  vitality  will  render  it  unprofitable  to  keep 
fowls.  Dr.  Salmon  says:  "Accumulations  of  excrement 
harbor  parasites,  vitiate  the  atmosphere,  and  breed  conta- 
gion/' It  may  be  possible,  but  it  is  doubtful,  to  keep  yards 
sufficiently  clean  by  disinfection  and  other  means  to  pre- 
vent troubles  of  this  kind.  At  any  rate,  the  expense  of 
disinfection  and  cleaning  would  render  it  impracticable. 

Size  of  Yards. — The  size  of  yards  will  be  governed 
largely  by,  first,  amount  of  land  available ;  second,  nature 
of  the  soil ;  third,  the  cost  of  fencing ;  and  fourth,  number 
of  separate  breeds  or  breeding  yards. 

As  to  the  first,  the  larger  the  yard  the  more  exercise  the 
fowls  will  take.  Large  yards,  therefore,  mean  greater  vigor 
in  the  stock.  "Where  the  soil  is  dry  and  porous  with  plenty 
of  sunshine,  probably  double  the  number  of  fowls  can  be 
kept  on  the  same  area  or  yard  as  where  the  soil  is  heavy 
and  wet.  The  larger  the  yard,  the  better  for  the  fowls; 
but  it  is  possible  to  make  them  so  large  that  the  cost  of 
fencing  will  offset  the  advantages.  In  other  words,  the 
fencing  becomes  prohibitive  when  a  certain  limit  of  yard 
is  exceeded. 

The  main,  if  not  the  only  excuse  for  small,  separate 
yards,  is  for  keeping  distinct  strains  or  breeds  separate  for 
breeding  purposes.  Where  as  many  as  500  fowls  are  kept 
and  there  is  no  object  in  making  up  small  breeding  pens, 
one  large  yard  may  be  fenced  in  and  the  fowls  allowed  to 
run  together  in  the  yard.  So  far  as  there  is  any  reliable 
data  or  experiments,  the  results  in  egg  yield  will  be  prac- 
tically as  good  as  where  they  are  separated  into  small  yards 
of  50  or  100  fowls.  Again,  the  larger  yard  is  more  easily 
cultivated  and  cropped  than  small  yards. 

Fencing  is  expensive,  and  if  the  yards  are  very  large  the 
cost  may  exceed  that  of  the  houses.  It  requires  more  fenc- 


KIND  OF   HOUSE  TO  BUILD  203 

ing  to  fence  a  given  area  in  a  rectangular  yard  than  in  a 
square  yard.  The  estimates  of  yard  space  vary  from  20 
to  100,  or  more,  square  feet  per  fowl.  For  100  hens  the 
size  of  yard  under  favorable  soil  conditions,  should  not  be 
less  than  20  square  feet  per  fowl  with  a  double  yard,  making 
40  square  feet  as  a  minimum. 

Double  Yards. — Where  fowls  are  kept  yarded  the  only 
practical  method  of  keeping  the  yards  clean  or  to  lessen 
the  danger  of  soil  contamination,  is  to  furnish  at  least  two 
yards  for  each  flock.  If  the  long,  continuous  house  be  used 
and  it  is  divided  into  small  pens  it  will  be  better  to  have 
the  yards  on  each  side  of  the  house,  rather  than  two  yards 
on  one  side,  in  order  to  get  width  enough  in  the  yards  for 
cultivation.  The  yards  being  shorter  and  wider,  less  fenc- 
ing will  be  required.  Where  the  yards  are  too  small  for 
horse  cultivation,  spading  will  have  to  be  resorted  to. 

Portable  Fence. — Portable  fences  may  be  used,  such  as 
illustrated  on  page  204.  When  the  fowls  are  moved  from 
one  yard  to  another  the  fences  are  moved,  so  that  half  the 
amount  of  fence  is  needed,  as  for  permanent  fences.  They 
take  half  the  amount  of  wire,  save  the  digging  of  post-holes 
and  the  cost  of  posts.  In  the  case  of  continuous  houses, 
with  yards  on  each  side,  the  fence  is  moved  from  one  side 
of  the  house  to  the  other,  leaving  the  old  ground  open  and 
free  for  cultivation.  This  saves  in  the  cost  of  labor  in 
cultivating.  More  labor,  however,  is  required  to  build  the 
portable  fence,  and  the  moving  of  them  once  or  twice  a  year 
is  likely  to  damage  them  somewhat,  but  if  built  of  good 
heavy  material  they  will  last  a  number  of  years. 

Portable  System  for  the  Farm. — On  the  general  farm 
where  50  or  100  hens  are  kept,  the  portable  fence  plan  may 
be  used  to  advantage  where  it  is  necessary  to  fence  in  the 
fowls,  as,  for  example,  during  seeding  time  and  while  the 
grain  is  getting  a  start.  Part  of  a  grain  field  may  be  used 


204         POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

for  a  poultry  house  and  flock.  During  part  of  the  spring 
a  quarter  of  an  acre  may  be  fenced  off  with  a  portable  fence, 
and  the  flock  put  in  a  portable  house,  such  as  illustrated 
below.  The  flock  would  be  turned  loose  on  free  range 
during  the  summer,  and  the  following  year  the  house  and 
fence  moved  onto  fresh  ground.  A  fresh  quarter  acre  should 
be  given  them  each  year  for  four  years  and  in  the  fifth  year 


PORTABLE   FENCE 
Designed  and  used  at  Oregon  Station. 

they  would  be  put  back  on  the  original  quarter  to  follow 
the  same  rotation.  The  manure  from  the  50  fowls  would 
keep  the  acre  of  ground  in  good  fertility  for  the  growth  of 
crops,  and  soil  contamination,  with  consequent  diseases  in 
the  flock,  would  be  practically  eliminated.  If  the  ground  is 
fairly  dry  and  the  flock  be  not  kept  shut  in  the  yard  more 
than  three  months,  100  fowls  could  be  kept  on  the  same 
acre,  using  two  colony  houses.  In  northern  sections  where 
snow  covers  the  ground  two  months  or  more  in  the  winter, 
additional  scratching  room  should  be  provided  in  the  form 
of  a  cheap  shed  illustrated  on  page  183. 

The  farm  flock  of  50  or  100  fowls  could  be  made  the  unit 
of  larger  and  extensive  plants.     For  every  100  fowls  an 


KIND   OF  HOUSE  TO  BUILD  205 

acre  of  ground  with  two  colony  houses  and  a  portable  fence 
would  be  required.  A  system  of  this  kind  followed  in  com- 
bination with  grain  growing  may  be  conducted  with  practi- 
cally no  cost  for  land.  The  chickens  will  do  little  if  any 
damage  to  the  grain  crop,  if  the  crop  is  pretty  well  grown 
before  they  are  turned  into  it.  They  will  eat  some  of  the 
grain,  but  the  grain  will  not  be  wasted  and  when  the  crop  is 
harvested  they  will  pick  up  the  waste  grain  in  the  field.  The 


SHOWING  HOW  FENCE   MAY  BE  CONSTRUCTED 

house  would  then  be  moved  out  farther  into  the  stubble 
field. 

Fencing. — Evolution  and  poultry  breeding  have  not  yet 
produced  the  hen  without  wings.  In  some  of  the  heavy 
meat  breeds  the  wings  are  of  comparatively  little  use.  A 
very  low  fence  serves  to  confine  them.  The  wings  of  the 
tame  duck  are  practically  valueless  to  protect  them  from 
the  wild  animals  of  the  forest,  which  was  the  particular 
use  or  purpose  of  wings  in  their  wild  state.  Long  disuse 
has  lessened  their  power  of  flight  and  put  them  practically 
out  of  commission.  The  turkey,  more  than  any  of  the 


206  POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

domestic  fowls,  retains  the  power  of  flying.  This  is  another 
instance  of  where  the  poultry  breeder  is  helpless  in  chang- 
ing the  nature  of  the  hen.  In  another  thousand  years  or 
two  the  wings  of  fowls,  through  disuse,  may  diminish  in 
size  and  strength  to  such  an  extent  that  poultry  fences  will 
be  cut  down  to  a  height  that  will  serve  only  to  keep  the  hen 
from  walking  over  them.  As  it  is,  the  wing  is  a  part  of  the 
hen  which,  no  matter  how  valuable  it  may  originally  have 
been  to  her,  is  now  positively  a  detriment  not  only  to  the 
poultryman,  who  is  making  a  considerable  investment  in 
fences,  but  to  the  neighbor  engaged  in  gardening. 

The  Height  of  Fences. — In  practice,  fences  are  usually 
made  from  4  to  6  feet  high,  the  lower  fence  for  the  heavier 
meat  breeds  and  the  higher  for  the  light  breeds.  Even  6 
feet  is  too  low  for  some  of  the  Leghorns  or  other  small 
breeds,  but  fences  are  seldom  made  higher  than  this.  By 
clipping  the  wings,  or  one  wing  of  each  fowl,  the  6-foot  fence 
will  be  high  enough  for  the  smallest  or  most  active  fowls. 
"Where  it  is  not  desirable  to  clip  the  wing,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  make  the  fence  about  8  feet  high  for  the  active 
breeds. 

Material. — Poultry  fences  are  almost  invariably  made  of 
poultry  netting.  It  is  made  of  galvanized  wire  and  the 
size  ranges  about  18-gage  to  20-gage,  usually  19  or  20.  For 
a  durable,  substantial  fence,  the  18-gage  is  recommended. 
The  durability  of  the  wire  depends  upon  its  being  well 
galvanized.  For  adult  fowls  2-inch  mesh  wire  is  used ;  for 
small  chicks  1-inch  or  %-inch  mesh.  The  posts  should  be 
set  10  feet  apart,  not  more  than  12.  A  2  x  4-inch  post 
treated  with  a  preservative  is  heavy  enough,  though  a  4  x  4 
will  last  longer. 

Shade  and  Fruit  Trees. — Shade  is  very  necessary  for 
fowls  in  summer.  This  may  be  secured  from  fruit  trees 


KIND   OF   HOUSE   TO   BUILD  207 

or  other  trees.  Two  or  three  fruit  trees — such  trees  as  will 
do  best  in  the  particular  soil  and  location — in  each  yard 
will  furnish  some  revenue,  as  well  as  shade.  Most  varieties 
of  fruit  do  well  in  poultry  yards.  Prunes,  apples  and 
cherries  do  exceptionally  well.  The  droppings  fertilize  the 
trees  and  the  poultry  aid  materially  in  keeping  in  check  cer- 
tain of  the  fruit  pests.  Sour  apples  should  be  fed  sparingly 
to  fowls.  Sour  varieties  of  apples  should  not  be  planted. 
Where  it  is  not  desirable  to  plant  trees,  sunflower  or  corn 
may  be  planted  early  in  season  in  part  of  the  yard,  fenced 
off  temporarily.  The  sunflower  is  a  rapid  grower  and 
furnishes  excellent  shade. 

SUMMARY  OF  CHAPTERS  IX  AND  X 

1.  No  one  style  of  house  is  essential  to  a  good  egg  yield. 

2.  Good  egg  yields  have  been  secured  in  long  houses,  and 
in  small,  portable  colony  houses,  but  the  highest  records 
have  been  made  in  the  latter. 

3.  On  one  point  all  experiments  agree,  that  is,  the  neces- 
sity of  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh  air. 

4.  Even   in   the   cold   climates   of   Maine,    Canada,   and 
Minnesota  the  cold  fresh-air  houses  have  given  better  re- 
sults than  warmly  built  houses. 

5.  Fowls  require  shelter  more  than  house — shelter  from 
winds,  rains  and  snow,  rather  than  from  cold. 

6.  The  open  shed,  or  the  open-front  house,  is  the  most 
serviceable  house  that  has  yet  been  invented.     "Without  it 
the  poultry  industry  would  have  gone  to  the  bad  before 
now. 

7.  As  to  how  much  of  the  front  should  be  open  will  de- 
pend largely  upon  weather  conditions.     The  opening  may 
be  smaller  in  cold  climates  than  in  warm.    Additional  ven- 
tilation should  be  given  during  summer. 


208  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

8.  Samples  of  air  should  be  taken  at  night  with  the  nose 
to  determine  whether  the  fowls  are  getting  enough  of  the 
cheapest  and  best  poultry  food  on  earth — fresh  air.     A 
good  nose,  therefore,  is  part  of  the  equipment  of  a  poultry 
farm. 

9.  Records  are  not  much  in  favor  of  movable  curtains. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  they  are  necessary  or  desirable  in 
any  section. 

10.  Portable  houses  render  the  control  or  prevention  of 
diseases  much  more  easy. 

11.  After  all,  the  house  is  not  guilty  of  all  the  things  that 
have  been  charged  against  it.     Probably  the  yards  should 
more  often  get  the  blame.     A  good  house  should  not  be 
hitched  on  to  an  unsanitary  and  poorly  kept  yard. 

PRESERVATION  OF  POULTRY  MANURE 

Poultry  manure  has  a  high  fertilizing  value.  It  is  es- 
pecially rich  in  nitrogen.  Unlike  farm  animals,  fowls  pass 
the  urinary  excretions  in  the  droppings.  The  urine  is  rich 
in  nitrogen  as  well  as  in  potash,  and  this  accounts  for  the 
high  fertilizing  value  of  the  droppings. 

The  average  fowl  produces  at  night  about  thirty  pounds 
of  manure  in  a  year.  This  varies  somewhat  as  the  method 
of  feeding  varies.  Fowls  fed  a  soft  mash  in  the  evening 
produce  more  manure  at  night  than  fowls  that  have  whole 
grain  as  the  last  feed  of  the  day.  The  night  droppings,  on 
the  average,  based  on  the  value  of  commercial  fertilizers, 
should  be  worth  15  to  20  cents  per  fowl ;  or  at  the  rate  of 
$30  for  100  hens  during  the  year,  counting  both  night  and 
day  droppings. 

A  large  part  of  the  value  of  the  manure,  however,  will  be 
lost  unless  some  care  is  taken  to  preserve  it.  Much  of  the 
loss  will  be  prevented  if  the  droppings  be  mixed  with  dry 


KIND  OF   HOUSE  TO  BUILD  209 

loam.  If  stored  in  a  shed  or  in  barrels  there  should  be  al- 
ternate layers  of  loam  (not  sand)  and  manure  in  the  pro- 
portion of  about  2  inches  of  the  former  to  1  inch  of  the 
latter. 

There  are  other  methods  of  preserving  the  fertilizing 
constituents  of  the  manure.  One  is  to  use  gypsum.  It 
is  a  pretty  good  plan  to  sprinkle  the  dropping  board  with 
gypsum  and  then  mix  more  of  it  with  the  manure  when 
stored.  In  experiments  at  the  Maine  Station  it  was  found 
that  t '  from  the  dung  stored  by  itself  or  with  sawdust,  more 
than  half  of  this  had  escaped  during  the  summer.  The  lot 
stored  with  40  pounds  of  plaster  lost  about  one-third,  while 
the  lot  stored  with  82  pounds  plaster  and  15  pounds  saw- 
dust suffered  no  loss/'  The  best  preservation  was  secured 
with  kainit  and  acid  phosphate,  both  with  and  without  saw- 
dust. For  a  flock  of  one  hundred  hens  a  good  method  of 
preserving  the  manure  would  be  to  use  about  thirty  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate  or  kainit  to  about  half  a  bushel  of  saw- 
dust. Good  dry  earth  or  muck  will  take  the  place  of  saw- 
dust. Lime  and  wood  ashes  should  not  be  mixed  with  the 
manure  as  they  accelerate  the  loss  of  nitrogen. 


CHAPTER  XI 

FUNDAMENTALS  OF  FEEDING 

Feeding  is  one  of  the  very  important  subjects  in  poultry 
husbandry.  It  is  true  that  some  hens  will  not  lay  many 
eggs,  no  matter  how  well  they  may  be  fed ;  that  is  because 
they  have  not  the  inherited  ability  to  lay ;  in  other  words, 
they  have  not  the  proper  breeding.  This  is  discussed  in  the 
chapter  on  breeding.  It  will  be  seen  there  that  food  is 
efficient  in  producing  eggs  largely  as  the  hen  has  been  bred 
for  laying,  and  that  it  is  a  waste  to  feed  it  to  some  hens. 
At  the  same  time  feeding  must  not  be  underrated.  While 
it  is  true  that  some  hens  will  not  lay  no  matter  how  well 
they  may  be  fed,  it  is  equally  true  that  some  will  not  lay, 
no  matter  what  their  breeding  may  be,  unless  well  fed. 

The  problems  in  feeding  cannot  be  settled  by  a  set  of 
rules  and  regulations.  That  is  to  say,  any  system  of  feed- 
ing cannot  be  followed  blindly  under  all  conditions.  If 
fowls  were  all  alike,  if  climatic  conditions  were  always  the 
same,  if  foods  never  varied  in  composition,  if  the  feeding 
were  done  with  a  single  purpose,  it  might  be  possible  to  re- 
duce the  problem  of  feeding  to  one  simple  ration  and  one 
single  way  of  feeding.  If  conditions  were  always  the  same 
it  would  be  possible  to  say  to  the  poultrymen  in  effect :  Feed 
this  ration  and  follow  this  system  of  feeding  and  you  will 
be  successful. 

The  successful  poultryman  of  course  will  follow  a  system, 
but  no  system  will  relieve  him  of  the  necessity  of  doing  a 
little  thinking  for  himself  if  he  will  get  the  best  value  from 
the  foods  he  feeds.  His  success  in  securing  a  good  egg 
yield  and,  therefore,  a  good  profit  will  depend  very  largely 

210 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  FEEDING  211 

upon  his  knowledge  of  foods  and  the  skill  he  exercises  io 
feeding. 

That  the  fowls  of  to-day  lay  considerably  more  eggs  than 
their  wild  progenitors  did  is  due  in  part  to  better  feeding 
and  a  more  abundant  supply  of  food.  But  the  hens  are 
not  laying  on  the  average  half  what  they  should.  To  secure 
the  maximum  egg  yield  the  poultryman  must  give  earnest 
attention  to  the  feed  bucket  and  to  methods  of  feeding. 
High  success  in  securing  eggs  can  only  come  where  the  sub- 
ject of  poultry  feeds  and  feeding  is  given  earnest  study. 

A  Knowledge  of  the  Composition  of  Foods  will  enable 
the  poultryman  to  gain  a  clearer  conception  of  their  values. 
The  advance  in  poultry  feeding  in  recent  years  has  been 
due  in  part  to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  composition  of 
foods.  While  our  knowledge  of  poultry  foods  and  feeding 
may  never  reach  a  point  where  we  can  say  that  certain 
foods  or  rations  will  produce  certain  results,  yet  a  great 
deal  of  valuable  information  is  available  as  a  result  of  ex- 
perimental feeding  at  the  stations  and  of  chemical  analysis 
of  poultry  foods.  In  addition  we  have  the  experience  of 
practical  poultry-keepers,  which  constitutes  a  fund  of  val- 
uable information  to  draw  upon.  But  poultry  feeding  has 
not  yet  been  reduced  to  a  so-called  scientific  basis.  While 
this  is  true,  the  student  of  poultry  feeding  will  be  agreeably 
surprised  to  find  much  data  of  such  a  character  as  to  well 
repay  diligent  study  and  research.  The  manufacture  of 
eggs — for  egg  production  is  really  a  manufacturing  pro- 
cess, the  hen  being  the  factory — requires  a  careful  study 
of  the  raw  materials  as  well  as  of  the  finished  product,  and 
the  working  of  the  factory  itself.  If  the  poultryman  wishes 
to  achieve  the  highest  measure  of  success,  it  is  imperative 
that  he  avail  himself  of  the  information  that  is  available  as 
a  result  of  costly  experience  and  experiment. 


212  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Limitations  of  Feeding. — Most  poultry-keepers  do  not 
realize  the  importance  of  good  feeding;  others  place  the 
whole  responsibility  upon  the  food  and  feeding.  Before 
telling  what  food  will  do,  let  us  first  tell  what  it  will  not 
do ;  let  us  understand  some  of  its  limitations 

First. — Good  food  and  good  feeding  will  not  make  some 
hens  lay ;  they  are  not  bred  to  lay.  At  the  Oregon  Station 
one  hen  laid  259  eggs  in  one  year ;  another,  fed  on  the  same 
food,  laid  six  eggs.  In  another  case  one  hen  laid  268  and 
a  flock  mate  on  the  same  ration  laid  three.  Many  other 
similar  instances  might  be  given.  This  is  referred  to  in 
detail  under  the  chapter  on  breeding. 

Second. — Good  feeding  will  avail  little  unless  the  fowls 
have  good  housing  or  care,  or,  in  other  words,  favorable 
environment. 

"With  good  fowls  and  good  housing,  what  will  good  feed- 
ing do  in  the  production  or  manufacture  of  eggs? 

Food  Affects  the  Quality  of  Eggs. — The  hen  is  very 
particular  about  what  she  puts  into  the  egg,  so  particular 
that  probably  no  food  could  be  fed  that  would  render  the 
eggs  totally  unfit  for  consumption.  At  the  same  time  it 
has  been  demonstrated  by  experiment  that  food  affects  the 
quality  of  the  egg,  and  that  to  produce  eggs  of  the  highest 
quality  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  quality  of  the  food. 

Flavor  of  Eggs. — Heavy  feeding  of  onions,  for  example, 
will  give  a  distinct  flavor  to  the  eggs  and  make  them  almost 
unpalatable.  Hens  eating  large  quantities  of  beef  scrap 
will  lay  eggs  of  strong  flavor.  These  facts  the  writer  per- 
sonally demonstrated  by  experiment.  No  doubt  other  foods 
will  also  give  a  flavor  to  the  eggs,  desirable  or  undesirable. 
It  is  said  that  a  diet  of  fish  will  give  a  fishy  taste  to  the  eggs. 

It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  discard  these  foods  on  this 
account,  for  when  fed  in  normal  quantities  they  will  not 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF   FEEDING  213 

give  a  perceptible  flavor  to  the  eggs.  Only  when  the  hens 
have  been  starved  on  green  food  or  animal  food,  and  then 
given  all  they  will  eat  of  either  for  a  few  days,  will  any 
flavor  from  onions  or  animal  food  be  noticed  in  the  egg. 
But  this  shows  that  the  hen  puts  into  the  egg  what  she  finds 
in  the  food,  even  the  flavor  of  the  foods.  It  is  therefore 
important  that  good  wholesome  food  be  fed  at  all  times. 

Feeding  Color  Into  the  Egg. — It  is  possible  for  the  skill- 
ful feeder  to  flavor  the  eggs;  it  sometimes  happens  from 
unskillful  feeding,  as  indicated  above.  It  is  possible  also 
to  "paint"  them.  The  variation  in  the  shade  of  yellow  in 
the  yolk  is  due  to  a  difference  in  the  food.  The  coloring  of 
the  egg  shell  is  beyond  the  feeder's  art,  but  food  affects  the 
color  of  the  yolk  as  we  have  demonstrated.  A  pen  of  fowls 
fed  dried  alfalfa  leaves  produced  eggs  of  good  yolk  color. 
A  similar  pen  fed  sugar  beets  instead  of  alfalfa  leaves  laid 
eggs  very  pale  in  color.  In  an  experiment  at  the  Oregon 
Station  kale  "  painted "  the  yolks  a  good  color  of  yellow. 
Experiments  at  other  stations  have  shown  that  the  feeding 
of  yellow  corn  will  color  the  yolk.  (West  Virginia  Bulletin 
88. )  When  eggs  are  pale  in  the  yolk  it  is  a  sure  indication 
that  the  hens  are  not  getting  green  food  enough.  Clover, 
vetch,  rape,  grass,  or  other  green  food,  and  doubtless  cer- 
tain grain  foods,  will  color  the  yolk.  A  yolk  too  highly  col- 
ored is  not  desirable,  and  it  is  possible  for  the  hens  to  eat  so 
much  of  certain  foods  as  to  color  it  too  highly.  Where  the 
ration  is  right  this  should  not  occur.  Food,  therefore,  af- 
fects the  quality  of  the  eggs. 

It  has  been  further  demonstrated  that  it  is  possible  to 
color  both  the  yolk  and  the  white  of  the  egg  by  the  feeding 
of  certain  aniline  dyes.  Khodamine  Red  dye  fed  at  the  rate 
of  100  grams  daily  will,  in  a  few  days,  color  the  white  a 
pink  color,  while  Soudan  III  dye  will  in  about  two  weeks  of 
feeding  color  the  yolk  a  dark  red.  An  egg  laid  two  days 


214  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

after  feeding  this  dye  to  the  hen  will  show  the  outer  rim  or 
layer  of  the  yolk  colored.  An  egg  laid  at  the  end  of  two 
weeks  of  feeding  will  show  each  layer  of  yolk  distinctly 
colored. 

So  far  the  experiments  referred  only  to  color  and  flavor. 
Both  color  and  flavor  in  the  egg  are  points  that  have  a 
market  value.  Eggs  either  too  pale  or  too  highly  colored 
in  the  yolk  will  be  objected  to  by  consumers  who  pay  a 
fancy  price  and  expect  a  fancy  article.  So,  too,  the  flavor 
must  be  unobjectionable  if  fancy  prices  are  to  be  received. 

These  experiments  might  indicate  that  it  is  possible,  by 
feeding  certain  foods,  to  change  the  chemical  composition 
of  eggs  or  feed  into  them  certain  things  that  will  improve 
their  nutritive  value.  So  far,  however,  this  is  only  a  pos- 
sibility. Little  investigation  has  been  done  and  what  has 
been  done  seems  to  show  contradictory  results. 

Investigations  by  Cross  at  Cornell  showed  that  ' '  in  feed- 
ing a  ration  high  in  fat  or  a  ration  high  in  protein  there 
is  no  material  change  in  the  amount  of  fat  and  protein  in 
the  egg. ' '  There  is  need,  however,  of  further  investigation 
and  it  would  seem  that  the  matter  is  of  practical  importance 
enough  to  warrant  it. 

Food  Affects  the  Yield  of  Eggs. — Other  conditions  be- 
ing right,  good  feeding  makes  the  hen  productive,  and  the 
productive  hen  is  the  healthy  hen.  In  a  pen  of  four  fowls 
at  the  Utah  Station  804  eggs  were  laid  in'  one  year. 
Another  pen  of  four,  sisters  to  the  others,  fed  a  different 
ration,  laid  532  eggs.  The  difference  in  the  ration  made 
the  difference  in  the  egg  yield.  In  another  test  one  pen 
laid  574  eggs  in  a  year,  and  a  similar  pen  on  a  different 
ration  laid  404. 

In  a  West  Virginia  experiment  fowls  fed  a  nitrogenous 
ration  laid  7,555  eggs,  while  other  fowls  fed  a  carbonaceous 
ration  laid  3,431  eggs.  (West  Virginia  Bulletin  60.) 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  FEEDING  215 

Food  Affects  the  Size  of  Eggs. — Food  and  feeding  in- 
fluence the  size  of  eggs.  Do  not  always  blame  the  hens  or 
the  breed  for  small  eggs.  An  experiment  has  shown  that 
the  size  of  egg  is  influenced  by  factors  under  the  control  of 
the  poultryman. 

The  size  of  egg,  of  course  is  influenced  by  other  factors. 
The'size  varies  to  some  extent  as  the  vigor  of  the  fowl  does, 
and  vigor  is  very  largely  dependent  upon  the  food  and 
method  of  feeding.  This  fact  was  brought  out  in  an  ex- 
periment by  the  writer  at  the  Utah  Station.  Fifty  Leghorn 
pullets  were  divided  into  four  lots,  as  follows : 

Pen  2,  10  fowls.     In  a  continuous  house,  closed  front,  slightly 

artificially  heated. 

Pen  14,  10  fowls.     In  a  continuous  house,  closed  front. 
Pen  26,  10  fowls.     In  a  continuous  house,  open  front. 
Colony  house,  18  fowls.    On  free  range. 

The  average  weight  of  eggs  for  the  six  months  beginning 
December  1,  was  as  follows: 

Colony  house    25.3  ounces  per  dozen 

Pen     2 23.4        "         "         « 

Pen  14  23.5       "        «         « 

Pen  26  22.5       " 

Eleven  eggs  from  the  colony  house,  it  is  seen,  weighed 
as  much  as  12  from  the  other  pen.  The  increased  size  of 
the  eggs  from  the  colony  house  flock  was  due  to  one  or  two 
factors,  or  to  both,  namely,  to  greater  exercise  and  natural 
foods  secured  on  the  range.  It  was  not  a  question  of  fresh 
air  or  type  of  house,  because  in  the  open-front  house  the 
eggs  were  no  larger  than  those  from  the  closed-front  house. 
That  there  is  a  relation  between  the  size  of  egg  and  vigor  of 
the  fowl  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  fowls  in  the  colony 
house  and  on  free  range  weighed  heavier  than  those  in  the 


216  POULTRY   BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

other  houses  at  the  end  of  experiment,  though  their  weights 
were  equal  at  the  start.  The  size  of  egg  is  undoubtedly  in- 
fluenced by  the  physical  condition  or  vigor  of  the  fowl. 
The  food  affects  the  vigor  of  the  fowl  and  therefore  affects 
the  size  of  egg.  In  more  recent  experiments  at  the  New 
Jersey  Station,  rations  deficient  in  protein  produced  un- 
dersized eggs.  (New  Jersey  Bulletin  265.)  Other  recent 
experiments  at  "West  Virginia  indicate  that  scanty  feeding 
produces  undersized  eggs  (West  Virginia  Bulletin  145). 

Food  Affects  the  Profits. — A  proper  study  of  foods  and 
feeding  must  include  prices  as  well  as  composition.  A  ration, 
although  it  may  give  good  results  in  egg  yield,  may  not  be 
profitable  because  it  is  made  up  of  too  high-priced  foods. 
There  is  no  patent  on  egg-producing  foods.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  use  any  certain  kind  or  brand  of  foods.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  pay  more  for  the  chickens7  food  than  for  the 
food  for  the  family  table.  There  are  rations  that  are  im- 
practicable because  they  are  too  high-priced. 

Different  Elements  of  Food. — If  we  look  upon  the  hen 
as  a  factory  for  the  production  of  eggs  and  the  eggs  as  the 
finished  product,  the  food  will  be  the  raw  material.  If  we 
had  never  seen  a  hen  eating  wheat  we  should  hardly  sus- 
pect that  eggs  were  made  out  of  wheat.  Eggs  and  wheat 
do  not  look  much  alike,  and  yet  when  the  chemist  analyzes 
them  he  finds  that  they  are  pretty  much  alike  in  composi- 
tion. The  farmer  manufactures  wheat  from  the  soil,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  heat  from  the  sun  and  the  rain  from 
the  clouds.  The  crop  it  produces  he  separates  into  straw, 
chaff  and  grain.  The  chemist  takes  the  grain  and  separates 
that  into  water,  protein,  carbohydrates,  fat  and  ash.  The 
poultryman  feeds  wheat  to  the  hen  and  the  hen  produces 
eggs.  The  chemist  analyzes  or  separates  these  eggs  as  he 
did  the  wheat  and  he  finds  that  they  contain  the  same  ele- 
ments as  he  found  in  the  wheat,  namely  water,  protein,  car- 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF   FEEDING  217 

bohydrates,  fat  and  ash,  with  the  difference  that  the  car- 
bohydrates have  been  converted  into  fat.  The  main  differ- 
ence between  a  bushel  of  wheat  and  a  bushel  of  eggs  is  that 
the  eggs  are  more  palatable  and  more  nutritious.  They  are 
also  more  valuable  in  the  market. 

A  study,  therefore,  of  the  composition  of  the  finished 
product  gives  us  a  clue  as  to  what  the  raw  material 
should  be. 

Composition  of  Eggs. — Without  the  shells  a  dozen  eggs 
weighing  l1/^  pounds,  contained  13.57  ounces  water,  2.32 
ounces  protein,  2.26  ounces  fat  and  0.22  ounces  ash.  A 
pound  of  eggs  is  worth  from  10  to  30  cents,  depending  upon 
the  season  and  markets ;  a  pound  of  wheat  runs  from  1  to  2 
cents.  When  wheat  is  given  to  the  hen  it  is  converted  by 
a  delicate  process  of  manufacture  into  a  form  of  food  so 
valuable  that  it  is  worth  many  times  as  much  as  it  was  in 
the  grain  sack.  More  than  that,  the  hen  is  thrifty;  for 
every  pound  of  wheat  she  puts  into  eggs  she  puts  a  pound 
of  water,  as  will  be  seen  later ;  and  she  gets  a  good  price  for 
the  water.  In  selling  eggs  at  40  cents  a  dozen  the  poultry- 
man  is  getting  25  cents  a  pound  for  the  water  in  them.  It 
is  more  than  the  dishonest  dairyman  gets  for  the  water  he 
puts  into  his  milk. 

An  average  egg  weighs  two  ounces:  10.81%  of  it  is  shell, 
32.47%  of  it  is  yolk,  and  56.42%  of  it  is  white. 

The  yolk  is  composed  of  about  50%  water,  15.5%  protein, 
33.4% fat  and  about  1%  mineral  matter. 

The  white  is  composed  of  about  85%  water,  12.1%  pro- 
tein, 0.23%  fat  and  0.34%  mineral  matter. 

Relation  of  Food  Eaten  to  Eggs  Laid. — There  is  a  close 
relationship  between  the  character  of  the  raw  material  or 
food  and  the  finished  product.  The  skill  of  the  poultry- 
man  comes  in  in  properly  adjusting  the  ration  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  heavy  production.  The  hen  does  not  ad- 


218  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

just  the  composition  of  the  egg  to  the  food  that  may  be  fed. 
If  the  right  elements  are  not  present  in  the  food  she  refuses 
to  make  eggs.  The  composition  of  the  egg  does  not  vary  to 
any  extent. 

The  egg  contains  one-quarter  ounce  of  protein.  If  the 
hen  be  fed  on  wheat  and  nothing  else  she  may  eat  four 
ounces  per  day.  Of  that  she  will  need  about  three  ounces 
to  supply  bodily  needs.  This  leaves  one  ounce  to  make  eggs 
with.  In  an  ounce  of  wheat  there  is  about  one-tenth  of  an 
ounce  of  protein.  Now,  supposing  the  protein  is  all  digest- 
ed, which  is  not  the  case,  she  will  not  get  enough  protein  to 
make  half  an  egg  a  day.  But  an  egg  every  two  or  three 
days  would  not  be  so  bad  at  certain  seasons.  The  egg,  how- 
ever, contains  other  things.  It  contains  also  about  one- 
quarter  ounce  of  mineral  matter,  chiefly  lime  for  shell.  An 
ounce  of  wheat  contains  less  than  one-tenth  as  much  min- 
eral matter  as  one  egg  of  two  ounces  contains.  The  egg  also 
contains  fat.  It  contains  less  than  one-quarter  ounce  of 
fat,  but  the  wheat  would  contain  three-quarters  of  an  ounce 
of  fat  formers. 

"What  would  be  the  result  if  the  hen  were  fed  on  wheat 
alone  ?  She  would  get  enough  protein  to  make  an  egg  about 
every  three  days ;  enough  lime  to  make  an  egg  every  12  days 
and  enough  carbohydrates  and  fat  to  make  three  eggs  a 
day.  "What  will  the  hen  do  in  such  a  quandary  ?  She  could 
put  more  fat  into  the  egg  to  make  up  for  lack  of  protein. 
She  could  make  a  counterfeit  article,  but  she  will  not.  Un- 
less she  has  the  right  materials  to  make  it  with,  she  will  not 
make  the  egg.  "What  would  probably  happen  would  be  that 
she  would  lay  an  egg  every  three  or  four  days,  every  two  out 
of  three  soft  shells,  and  the  surplus  fat  and  carbohydrates 
would  be  wasted  or  put  on  the  hen  in  the  shape  of  surplus 
fat.  This  is  assuming  that  the  hen  would  continue  to  con- 
sume four  ounces  of  wheat  a  day  and  maintain  health.  In 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF   FEEDING 


219 


practice,  however,  the  result  would  be  different.  She  would 
not  long  continue  to  eat  four  ounces  of  wheat  and  nothing 
else.  There  would  soon  be  a  loss  of  appetite  and  health. 

It  is  poor  economy  to  feed  wheat  alone.  The  same  thing 
is  true  of  corn  and  all  the  cereals.  None  of  them  are  "  bal- 
anced "  for  egg  production. 

A  Balanced  Ration. — This  raises  the  question  of  what 
is  a  balanced  ration  ?  A  balanced  ration  is  one  containing 
the  right  kind  of  nutrients  in 
right  proportions  for  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  fed. 

"We  must  know  the  composi- 
tion of  foods  before  we  can 
figure  up  a  balanced  ration. 
It  may  not  be  necessary  in 
practice  for  the  poultryman 
to  figure  up  balanced  rations 
for  his  flock.  His  experience 
or  the  experience  of  others,  or 
the  results  of  tests  at  experi- 
ment stations,  are  a  pretty 
safe  guide  for  the  poultry- 
man ;  but  in  order  that  he  may 
intelligently  plan  improve- 
ments in  rations,  and  adjust 
his  feeding  to  the  available 
food  supply,  he  should  under- 
stand something  of  the  com- 
position of  ordinary  poultry 
foods. 

What  Use  Does  a  Hen  Make  of  the  Food  She  Eats? — 
In  other  words,  what  is  the  purpose  of  feeding  ?  The  first 
use  she  makes  of  the  food  is  to  supply  the  needs  of  her 


A    BALANCED    RATION 

Wheat,     oats,     bran,     and     beef 
scrap     in     the     above     proportions 
make  up  a  balanced  ration  for  lay- 
ing hens.     In  addition,  green  food, 
grit,  and  oyster  shell  must  be  fed. 


220 


POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 


body.  The  maintenance  of  her  body  is  her  first  concern. 
The  body  of  the  hen,  like  that  of  other  animals,  needs  con- 
stant rebuilding.  There  is  constant  wearing  or  breaking 
down  of  tissues,  and  the  food  rebuilds 
the  body  or  repairs  its  wastes.  The 
work  of  the  poultryman,  therefore,  does 
not  end  with  the  making  of  the  hen,  with 
the  hatching  and  rearing  of  the  pullet: 
he  must  maintain  her,  and  the  skill  of 
the  feeder  shows  itself  in  so  compound- 
ing rations  and  so  feeding  them  that  the 
health  and  vitality  of  the  hen  may  be 
maintained.  That  is  the  first  considera- 
tion of  good  feeding  —  the  maintenance 
needs  of  the  hen,  the  maintenance  of 
health  and  vigor. 

In  feeding  laying  fowls,  the  second  use 
to  which  food  is  put  by  the  hen  is  to 
make  eggs.    After  the  body's  needs  have 
been  supplied,  if  there  is  any  food  left, 
the  hen  will  use  it  for  the  making  of 
eggs.    Eggs  are  made  from  surplus  food. 
After  she  has  eaten  enough  to  supply 
bodily  needs  she  turns  attention  to  the 
egg  basket.     It  is  poor  economy,  there- 
fore,   if    the    purpose    is    egg    production,    to    feed    just 
enough  to  maintain  the  hen.    More  must  be  fed  or  our  ef- 
forts will  be  wasted. 

If  the  purpose  is  meat  production  and  a  fattening  or 
fleshening  ration  is  being  fed,  the  purpose  will  be  defeated 
if  only  enough  is  fed  to  maintain  the  fowl.  The  profit  in 
feeding  in  both  cases  comes  from  the  food  consumed  above 
that  necessary  for  maintenance. 

On  the.  other  hand,  heavy  feeding  does  not  necessarily 


TohfVshlafate 
and  water  in  eggs, 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   FEEDING 


221 


mean  a  heavy  yield  of  eggs.  In  an  experiment  by  the  writer 
two  pens  of  fowls  consumed  an  average  of  75.6  pounds 
food,  not  counting  the  green  food,  and  laid  an  average  of 
167  eggs  per  fowl.  With  the  same  amount  of  food  two 
other  pens  averaged  117  eggs  each.  The  nutritive  ratio 
was  practically  the  same  in  each  case.  While  the  heavy 
layer  must  consume  plenty  of  food,  the  manner  of  feeding 
and  the  kind  of  food  must  be  taken  into  account.  In  other 
words,  the  efficiency  of  feeding  rests  largely  on  the  kinds  of 
food  fed  and  the  skill  with  which  the  feeding  is  done. 


?EED    REQUIREMENTS    OF    CHICKENS    PER    DAY    FOR    EACH    100 
POUNDS  OF  LIVE  WEIGHT    (AFTER  WHEELER) 

Digestible  nutrients  (pounds') 


' 

Total 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbo- 

Ash 

dry 

hydrates 

matter 

Growing  chicks: 

First  2  weeks  .... 

2.00 

0.40 

7.20 

0.50 

10.1 

2  to  4  weeks  

2.20 

0.50 

6.20 

0.70 

9.6 

4  to  6  weeks  

2.00 

0.40 

5.60 

0.60 

8.6 

6  to  8  weeks 

1.60 

0.40 

4.90 

0.50 

7.4 

8  to  10  weeks  

1.20 

0.30 

4.40 

0.50 

6.4 

10  to  12  weeks.  .  . 

1.00 

0.30 

3.70 

0.40 

5.4 

Adults  (maintenance 

only)  : 

Capon,  9  to  12 

pounds 

0.30 

0.20 

1.74 

0.06 

2.3 

Hen,  5  to  7  pounds 

0.40 

0.20 

2.00 

0.10 

2.7 

Hen,  3  to  5  pounds 

0.50 

0.30 

2.95 

0.15 

3.9 

Egg  production: 

Hen,  5  to  8  pounds 

0.65 

0.20 

2.25 

0.20 

3.3 

Hen,  3  to  5  pounds 

1.00 

0.35 

3.75 

0.30 

5.4 

Food  Requirements. — The  food  requirements  vary  with 
the  age  and  size  of  the  fowls.  The  younger  the  chick  the 
more  food  is  required  per  pound  weight  of  chick.  The 


222  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

larger  the  laying  hen,  less  food  is  required  per  pound 
weight  of  hen.  It  has  been  shown  in  experiments  by  Wheel- 
er that  100  pounds  of  chicks  under  two  weeks  of  age  re- 
quired 10.1  pounds  of  food  (digestible  nutrients)  per  day; 
from  four  to  six  weeks  the  requirement  was  8.6  pounds; 
at  10  to  12  weeks  the  requirement  was  5.4,  so  that  accord- 
ing to  the  weight  of  the  chick,  or  for  every  100  pounds  of 
chicks  regardless  of  number,  nearly  double  the  amount  of 
food  is  required  during  the  first  two  weeks  of  their  age  as 
is  required  from  the  10th  to  the  12th  week.  It  is  also  shown 
that  the  small  chick  requires  double  the  amount  of  food 
that  the  laying  hen  needs,  per  pound  weight.  For  a  hen 
not  laying,  the  difference  is  still  greater.  More  food,  of 
course,  is  eaten  per  chick  as  it  grows  older,  but  less  is  eaten 
per  pound  weight  of  chick. 

Natural  and  Artificial  Feeding. — The  business  of  poul- 
try keeping  is  more  or  less  artificial,  even  the  feeding  of 
the  fowls.  Artificial  methods,  however,  can  be  followed 
successfully  just  so  far.  The  lessons  of  feeding  will  be 
more  easily  learned  if  account  be  taken  of  the  manner  in 
which  fowls  secure  their  food  under  natural  conditions. 
Where  they  have  their  liberty  to  range  over  fields  they  pick 
up  weed  seeds  and  waste  grain,  nibble  at  the  grass  and 
grass  roots,  chase  flies  and  grasshoppers,  hunt  for  bugs  and 
worms,  and  finish  off  with  grit  for  dessert.  Under  such 
conditions  the  hen  balances  her  own  ration,  maintains  her 
health  and  vigor  and  produces  eggs  abundantly,  if  the  sup- 
ply of  these  foods  is  large  enough  so  that  she  can  secure 
her  meals  regularly  each  day.  The  exercise  secured  in 
hunting  for  the  food  enables  her  to  better  digest  and  as- 
similate her  food  and  maintain  her  in  good  health  and  vigor. 
But  under  natural  conditions  the  daily  food  supply  is  un- 
certain, and  here  is  indicated  the  advantage  of  artificial  or 
systematic  feeding,  or  the  necessity  of  cooperation  between 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   FEEDING  223 

the  farmer  and  the  fowl,  if  the  highest  production  is  to  be 
secured. 

The  Purpose  of  Feeding  is  not  merely  to  maintain  the 
fowl  in  health  and  vigor;  she  can  take  care  of  that  herself 
if  given  her  liberty;  the  purpose  of  feeding  is  to  secure 
higher  production,  and  that  is  possible  only  where  the  food 
supply  is  sufficient  and  regular  for  the  needs  of  the  hen. 
Account  must  be  taken  of  the  nature  of  the  hen.  She  must 
be  fed  artificially,  but  artificial  foods  or  nutrients  must  not 
be  substituted  for  the  foods  obtained  naturally.  Neither 
may  a  life  of  ease  be  substituted  for  her  natural  life  of  ac- 
tivity. She  is  a  creature  of  great  nervous  activity  and  the 
poultryman  must  take  account  of  that  also  and  in  his  feeding 
make  sure  that  the  activity  or  exercise  is  provided.  Nature 
calls  for  food  of  certain  kinds  and  for  activity  or  exercise 
that  will  make  the  food  efficient  in  production.  We  cannot 
improve  on  the  kinds  of  foods,  nor  do  away  with  activity. 
But  the  intense  production  called  for  in  the  modern  im- 
proved egg-producing  hen  calls  for  systems  of  feeding  that 
will  furnish  unfailingly  a  full  supply  of  all  the  food 
nutrients  demanded  by  the  fowl. 

Composition  of  Foods. — This  does  not  mean  that  the 
feeder  must  limit  himself  to  weed  seeds  and  bugs  and  grass- 
hoppers. Wheat  and  corn  are  made  up  of  the  same  in- 
gredients as  wild  weed  seeds,  namely,  protein,  fat,  carbohy- 
drates; so  the  modern  meat  scraps  contain  the  same  ele- 
ments as  grasshoppers  and  worms.  The  difference  is  that 
we  furnish  the  vegetable  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat,  in 
the  form  of  wheat  and  corn  instead  of  weed  seeds,  and  the 
animal  protein  and  fat  in  the  form  of  meat  scraps  rather 
than  in  the  form  of  bugs  and  insects. 

The  Mineral  Matter  called  ash,  which  is  that  part  of  the 
food  that  remains  after  burning,  is  found  in  varied  amounts 
in  all  foods.  The  hen  is  a  concentrator ;  she  takes  the  min- 


224  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

eral  in  the  food,  concentrates  it  into  egg  shells  and  mixes 
a  little  in  the  contents.  All  grain  foods  contain  insufficient 
lime  with  which  to  make  egg  shells  and  the  laying  hen  must 
eat  grit,  oyster  shells,  or  other  things,  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiency. "Where  high  egg  production  is  called  for,  the 
mineral  matter  is  a  most  important  part  of  the  food.  Its 
importance  should  be  more  fully  emphasized. 

The  Oregon  Station  hen  that  laid  42  pounds  of  eggs  in 
12  months  used  in  the  manufacture  of  shells  practically 
3y2  pounds  of  lime.  In  addition  there  was  a  small  quan- 
tity of  mineral  matter  in  the  egg  contents.  The  grain  foods 
she  ate  contained  about  two  pounds  of  ash.  More  than 
half  the  mineral  matter,  therefore,  was  secured  from  other 
sources  than  the  grain  foods. 

Mineral  nutrients  are  also  demanded  by  the  fowl  for 
building  up  or  repairing  the  bones  or  skeleton  of  the  body. 
The  flesh  and  internal  organs  also  contain  certain  com- 
pounds of  ash.  The  importance  of  ash  in  feeding  has  been 
brought  out  in  feeding  experiments  with  hogs.  Corn  alone, 
which  is  low  in  mineral  matter,  produced  small  gain  in 
weight  and  developed  an  undersized,  fine-boned,  over-fat 
animal  ' t  characterized  by  proportionately  small  kidneys, 
lungs,  heart,  liver  and  muscles,  and  by  a  high  percentage 
of  fat."  A  German  physiologist  proved  that  animals  will 
live  longer  with  no  food  at  all  than  with  food  containing  no 
mineral  matter.  As  to  the  effect  of  insufficient  calcium 
(lime)  Sherman  quotes  the  following:  "Voit  kept  a  pigeon 
for  a  year  on  food  poor  in  calcium  without  observing  any 
effects  attributable  to  the  diet  until  the  bird  was  killed  and 
dissected,  when  it  appeared  that,  although  the  bones  con- 
cerned in  locomotion  were  still  sound,  there  was  a  marked 
wasting  of  lime  salts  from  other  bones,  such  as  the  skull 
and  sternum,  which  in  places  were  even  perforated.  The 
injurious  effects  of  an  insufficient  intake  of  lime  is,  of 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   FEEDING  225 

course,  more  noticeable  with  growing  than  with  full-grown 
animals. ' ' 

As  the  egg-producing  capacity  of  fowls  is  improved  there 
is  increased  demand  for  the  mineral  elements,  and  the  suc- 
cessful poultryman  will  see  that  there  is  no  deficiency  in 
this  respect  in  the  ration.  The  mineral  matter  in  the  body  of 
the  fowl  is  largely  phosphate  of  lime,  while  the  egg  shell  is 
almost  entirely  carbonate  of  lime. 

Ground  bone  is  the  most  available  form  in  which  to  fur- 
nish the  mineral  matter  for  body  growth.  Eapidly  growing 
young  chickens  require  much  mineral  matter  in  the  form 
of  lime  phosphates  which  are  found  in  bone.  It  is  different 
in  the  case  of  the  laying  hen.  The  shell  of  the  egg  is  almost 
all  carbonate  of  lime  and  this  is  found  in  its  most  available 
form  in  oyster  shells. 

But  little  is  known  of  the  effects  of  the  specific  mineral 
elements,  phosphorus,  iron  and  sulphur,  on  production  or 
growth.  It  will  be  a  distinct  advance  in  the  practice  of 
feeding  when  more  definite  knowledge  has  been  gained  of 
the  part  played  in  the  economy  of  feeding  by  these  dif- 
ferent mineral  compounds  of  ash. 

Protein  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  food,  because, 
though  it  is  found  in  all  poultry  foods,  it  is  not  found  in 
the  cheaper  foods  in  sufficient  amount  for  the  needs  of  the 
fowl,  especially  the  laying  fowl.  Foods  containing  a  high 
percentage  of  protein  are  usually  the  most  expensive.  Pro- 
tein makes  the  lean  meat  and  the  muscle  and  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  contents  of  the  egg.  The  white  of  the  egg, 
lean  meat,  gluten  of  the  flour,  and  milk  casein  are  practi- 
cally all  protein. 

The  value  of  the  food  must  be  determined  largely  by  the 
amount  of  protein  which  it  contains,  and  high  prices  should 
not  be  paid  for  food  of  any  kind  unless  it  has  a  guaranteed 
analysis  of  high  protein  content.  Generally  speaking,  foods 


226  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

are  cheap  or  dear  in  proportion  as  they  contain  a  high  or 
low  percentage  of  protein. 

Carbohydrates  and  Fats  furnish  the  fat  of  the  body  and 
of  the  egg.  From  them  are  derived  the  heat  necessary  to 
keep  up  the  temperature  of  the  body.  They  are  burned 
in  the  body  to  furnish  the  heat  and  also  the  energy.  It 
requires  energy  to  digest  food;  it  requires  energy  to  walk 
and  to  fly  and  to  scratch,  just  as  it  requires  steam  to  drive 


AMOUNT  FOR.  ONE    HEN    ron  One. 

BALANCED   RATION   FOR    ONE   HEN   FOR   A   YEAR 
Showing  the  amount  and  sources  of  the  different  chemical  constituents. 

the  steam  engine ;  and  a  considerable  amount  of  food  in  the 
form  of  carbohydrates  and  fat  is  used  to  produce  this  en- 
ergy. Most  poultry  foods  contain  a  larger  percentage  of 
carbohydrates  and  fat  for  egg  production  than  is  necessary, 
while  there  is  usually  a  deficiency  of  protein.  To  what  ex- 
tent fat  in  the  food  influences  the  egg  yield  is  not  definitely 
known.  In  experiments  by  the  writer  rations  containing 
a  liberal  amount  of  fat  gave  a  better  yield  than  others  of 
little  fat.  The  experiments  have  shown  that  fowls  eat 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   FEEDING 


227 


PERCENTAGE    COMPOSITION   OF   FOODS 


Carbohydrates 


GRAIN 

Watff 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

N-Free  Extract    Fat 

Wheat    

10.5 

1.8 

11.9 

1.8 

71.9 

2.1 

Corn    

10.9 

1.5 

10.5 

2.1 

69.6 

5.4 

Kaffir   Corn  

9.3 

1.5 

9.9 

1.4 

74.9 

3.0 

Oats    

11 

3 

11.8 

9.5 

59.7 

5 

Peas    

10.5 

2.6 

20.2 

14.4 

51.1 

1.2 

Barley    

10.9 

2.4 

12.4 

2.7 

69.8 

1.8 

Rye    

11.6 

1.9 

10.6 

1.7 

72.5 

1.7 

Buckwheat   

12.6 

2 

10 

8.7 

64.5 

2.2 

Cow  peas   

14.8 

3.2 

20.8 

4.1 

55.7 

1.4 

Sunflower  

8.6 

2.6 

16.3 

29.9 

21.4 

21.2 

Millet    

14 

3.3 

11.8 

9.5 

57.4 

4 

Sorghum    

12.8 

2.1 

9.1 

2.6 

69.8 

3.6 

Flaxseed  

9.2 

4.3 

22.6 

7.1 

23.2 

33.7 

Wheat    bran  

11.67 

5.18 

14.05 

8.16 

57.34 

3.6 

Wheat   middlings 

11.73 

2.85 

15.22 

4.88 

60.85 

4.47 

Wheat  shorts  

11.8 

4.6 

14.9 

7.4 

56.8 

4.5 

Linseed  meal 

(N.    P.)  

9.9 

5.6 

35.9 

8.8 

36.8 

3 

Gluten  meal  

8.1 

1 

28.3 

1.1 

50.8 

10.7 

Cottonseed  meal. 

8.2 

7.2 

42.3 

5.6 

23.6 

13.1 

Soy  bean   meal  .  . 

10.8 

4.5 

36.7 

4.5 

27.3 

16.2 

Brewers'   dried 

grain   

8 

3.4 

24.1 

13 

44.8 

6.7 

GREEN  FOODS 

Alfalfa   

71.8 

2.7 

4.8 

7.4 

12.3 

1 

Clover  (Red)  

70.8 

2.1 

4.4 

8.1 

13.5 

1.1 

Kale   

88.2 

1.82 

2.57 

1.47 

5.32 

.61 

Cabbage    

C0.5 

1.4 

2.4 

1.5 

3.9 

0.4 

Vetch    

69.18 

2.71 

3.76 

9.64 

14.22 

.40 

Mangel  Wurzel.. 

91.2 

1 

1.4 

0.8 

5.4 

0.2 

Turnip  

C0.5 

0.8 

1.1 

1.2 

6.2 

0.2 

Sugar  beet  

86.5 

0.9 

1.8 

0.9 

9.8 

0.1 

Dried  beet  pulp.. 

6.4 

3.3 

10.8 

19.8 

58.4 

1.3 

Carrot    

88.6 

1 

1.1 

1.3 

7.6 

0.4 

Potato    

78.9 

1 

2.1 

0.6 

17.3 

0.1 

Artichoke   

79.5 

1 

2.6 

0.8 

15.9 

0.2 

ANIMAL  FOOD 

Skim   milk  

90.6 

0.7 

3.3 

... 

5.3 

0.1 

Buttermilk  

90.3 

0.7 

4 

..  . 

4.5 

0.5 

Whey    

93.8 

0.4 

0.6 

... 

5.1 

0.1 

Cottage  cheese..  . 

72 

1.8 

20.9 

... 

4.3 

1 

Milk   Albumen... 

18 

3 

43 

? 

? 

1.5 

Beef  scrap  

10.7 

4.1 

71.2 

..  . 

0.3 

13.7 

Cut  bone  

34.2 

22.8 

20.6 

... 

1.9 

20.5 

Dried  blood 

8.5 

4.7 

84.4 

... 

... 

2.5 

Dried  fish  

10.8. 

29.2 

48.4. 

,,, 

»•» 

11.6 

228  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

more  food  during  the  cold  weather  than  during  the  warm. 
This  is  because  it  requires  more  food  to  keep  up  the  heat  of 
the  body,  and  for  heat-producing  purposes  cheap  fat  foods 
serve  the  purpose  as  well  as  expensive  protein  foods. 

Nutritive  Ratio. — The  hardest  problem,  therefore,  in 
poultry  feeding  is  to  compound  suitable  rations  containing 
the  necessary  protein  in  its  most  available  form  and  at 
reasonable  cost  for  heavy  production.  The  nutritive  ratio 
is  the  ratio  of  digestible  protein  to  digestible  fat  and  heat- 
producing  foods.  For  egg  production  a  narrow  nutritive 
ratio  should  be  fed.  A  ratio  of  one  of  protein  to  four  or  five 
of  carbohydrates  and  fat  is  a  narrow  ratio  and  will  give  good 
results  in  egg  production.  In  figuring  the  ratio  the  fat  is 
multiplied  by  2^  as  it  is  estimated  that  one  pound  of  fat 
is  equal  to  2%  pounds  of  carbohydrates. 

It  should  be  understood,  however,  that  the  nutritive  ratio 
in  itself  does  not  necessarily  indicate  the  true  value  of  the 
ration.  Palatability  and  other  factors  have  to  be  consider- 
ed. At  the  Utah  Station  two  rations  having  the  same  nutri- 
tive ratio  were  fed  to  two  different  pens  of  fowls  for  a  year. 
One  of  them  gave  a  yield  of  201  eggs  per  fowl;  the  other 
133.  There  was  a  difference  in  the  kind  of  the  food,  but  not  in 
the  nutritive  ratio.  Two  other  pens  having  rations  of  simi- 
lar nutritive  ratio  gave  yields  of  101  and  143  eggs  respec- 
tively. At  the  West  Virginia  Station  laying  hens  fed  a 
narrow  ratio,  or  nitrogenous  ration,  produced  17,459  eggs, 
while  the  pens  with  a  wide,  or  carbonaceous  ration,  laid 
9,708  eggs.  During  the  experiment  the  former  fowls  gained 
in  live  weight  1  pound  4  ounces  each,  while  the  latter  gain- 
ed only  about  one-tenth  of  a  pound  each,  Other  experi- 
ments have  shown  the  superiority  of  the  narrow  ratio,  or 
the  ration  rich  in  protein  or  nitrogen. 

The  proper  nutritive  ratio,  however,  does  not  guarantee 
a  good  egg  yield.  Regard  must  be  had  to  the  kind  of  foods 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  FEEDING  229 

fed,  and  the  feeder  must  be  guided  by  the  results  of  feeding 
tests  that  indicate  the  feeding  value  of  different  foods. 

It  has  been  shown,  for  example,  that  there  is  a  difference 
in  the  protein.  Fowls  require  a  certain  amount  of  protein 
in  the  ration,  but  to  be  effective  in  egg  yield  part  of 
that  protein  must  come  from  animal  sources.  It  is  protein 
just  the  same,  but  why  there  should  be  this  difference  in 
feeding  value  between  animal  and  vegetable  protein  is  not 
yet  known. 

Experiments  by  Wheeler  showed  that  an  animal  food  ra- 
tion for  laying  hens  was  superior  to  others  in  which  all  the 
organic  matter  was  derived  from  vegetable  sources,  and  for 
growing  ducklings  very  much  superior.  In  the  case  of 
growing  chicks  where  bone  ash  was  fed  in  the  place  of  ani- 
mal food  the  results  were  equally  satisfactory.  (Geneva 
Bulletin  171.) 

In  New  Jersey  experiments  (Bulletin  265)  it  was  found 
that :  ' '  The  addition  of  animal  protein  in  the  form  of  meat 
scrap  materially  increases  the  efficiency  of  a  ration 
relatively  high  in  vegetable  protein,  both  for  egg  produc- 
tion and  for  flesh  growth, "  and  that:  "Phosphoric  acid 
from  an  organic  source  (animal  bone)  is  much  more  ef- 
ficient than  phosphoric  acid  from  an  inorganic  scource. " 

ANALYSES  OF  FOWLS  AND  EGG* 
(The  analyses  of  the  fowls  include  the  feathers,  bones,  blood,  etc.) 

Water  Ash  Protein  grates  Fat 

Hen 55.8  3.8  21.6                  ..                  17 

Pullet '         55.4  3.4  21.2                  ..                  18 

Capon     41.6  3.7  19.4                  ..  33.9 

Fresh  egg.  .          65.7  12.2  11.4                  . .                    8.9 

*Prof.  W.  P.  Wheeler,  Geneva  (N.  Y.)  Station. 

Computing  the  Ratio. — The  nutritive  ratio  may  be  com- 


230  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

puted  as  follows :  Suppose  the  ration  is  10  pounds  wheat, 
3  pounds  oats,  2  pounds  bran  and  1  pound  beef  scrap.  By 
referring  to  the  table  of  composition  of  feeds,  page  227,  it 
will  be  found  that  wheat  contains  11.9%  protein;  so  that  in 
10  pounds  wheat  there  are  1.19  pounds  protein ;  it  contains 
73.7%  carbohydrates,  and  in  10  pounds  there  are  7.37 
pounds  carbohydrates.  The  percentage  of  fat  is  2.1,  or 
0.21  pound  fat  in  10  pounds  wheat.  Figuring  the  other 
foods  in  the  same  way,  we  get  the  results  shown  in  the 
following  table : 

10  Ibs.         3  Us.         3  Us.     1  Ib.  beef 


wheat 

oats 

bran 

scrap 

Total 

. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Protein              .  . 

119 

0.35 

0.29 

0.66 

2.49 

Carbohydrates 

737 

2.08 

1.31 

10.76 

Fat  .. 

0.21 

0.15 

0.07 

0.14 

0.57 

To  get  the  nutritive  ratio,  multiply  the  total  fat  by  2*4 
(0.57X21/4=1.28) .  Add  this  to  the  carbohydrates  (10.76+ 
1.28=12.04).  Divide  this  by  the  total  protein  (12.04-^2.49) 
and  we  get  the  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :4.8.  In  other  words, 
this  ration  contains  one  pound  of  protein  to  4.8  pounds 
carbohydrates  and  fat.  This  is  not  given  as  a  good  ration, 
but  simply  to  show  how  the  nutritive  ratio  is  computed. 
In  point  of  fact,  this  method  of  computation  is  not  correct 
because  it  is  figured  on  the  total  nutrients,  not  on  the 
amount  actually  digestible. 

Digestibility  of  Poultry  Foods. — In  the  above  compu- 
tation it  is  seen,  for  example,  that  there  are  1.19  pounds 
of  protein  in  10  pounds  wheat,  but  according  to  Henry's 
compilation  of  digestion  coefficients  for  livestock,  there  is 
only  0.88  pound  digestible  protein  in  10  pounds  wheat. 
The  amounts  digested  are  shown  in  the  following  table, 
using  the  standard  coefficients  for  livestock; 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF   FEEDING  231 

10  Us.  3  Ibs.  2  Ibs.      1  Ib.  beef 

wheat  oats  bran  scrap  Total 

Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs.  Ibs. 

Protein    0.88  0.26  0.24  0.61  1.99 

Carbohydrates    6.75  1.47  0.84                ..  9.06 

Fat 0.15  .       0.13  0.05  0.14  0.47 

Eatio — 1:5.0 

Foundation  of  Scientific  Feeding. — The  composition  of 
foods  affords  a  means  of  estimating  fairly  well  the  value 
of  the  food.  Foods  are  usually  valuable  in  proportion  as 
they  contain  a  high  or  a  low  percentage  of  protein.  For 
instance,  a.  pound  of  protein  may  be  worth  so  much, 
whether  it  be  found  in  corn  or  wheat  bran.  A  hundred 
pounds  of  corn  containing  10.5  pounds  protein  is  not  worth 
as  much  as  100  pounds  beef  scrap  containing  60  pounds 
protein.  That  is  the  fundamental  lesson  that  the  chemical 
analysis  of  foods  teaches. 

Chemistry  gave  to  the  world  only  some  fifty  years  ago  a 
feeding  standard  based  upon  the  chemical  composition  of 
fot)ds.  Previous  to  that  time,  as  Henry  says,  "the  farmer 
gave  his  ox  hay  and  corn  without  the  least  conception  of 
what  there  was  in  this  provender  that  nourished  animals. ' ' 
The  discovery  of  the  vital  differences  in  the  amount  of 
nutrients  in  different  foods  was  the  foundation  of  scientific 
feeding. 

Percentage  Digested. — But  that  is  not  all.  It  was  found 
that  not  only  did  the  foods  vary  in  composition,  or  total 
nutrients,  but  a  few  years  later  a  German  scientist  formu- 
lated a  new  standard  based,  not  on  total  amount  of  nutrients 
—protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat — but  on  the  amount  or 
percentage  of  these  nutrients  digested  by  the  animal.  For 
example,  there  are  3.8  pounds  crude  protein  in  corn  stover, 
but  only  1.4  pounds  of  that  is  digestible,  or  36%,  the  rest 
of  the  protein  is  wasted. 


232  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

58  per  cent  of  the  protein  of  clover  is  digested 

76  per  cent  of  the  protein  of  corn  is  digested 

77  per  cent  of  the  protein  of  oats  is  digested 

89  per  cent  of  the  protein  of  linseed  meal  is  digested 

So  do  the  carbohydrates  and  fat  vary  in  digestibility  in 
different  foods. 

The  percentages  of  these  nutrients  digested  by  animals 
have  been  determined  for  practically  all  animal  foods,  and 
tables  of  digestion  coefficients  for  livestock  have  been  made 
and  published.  Unfortunately,  the  same  information  is 
not  available  for  poultry  feeds.  It  has  been  assumed  that 
the  digestibility  of  feeds  will  not  be  the  same  with  poultry 
as  with  livestock;  that  poultry  may  or  may  not  digest  the 
food  better  than  livestock ;  and  that  before  the  digestibility 
of  poultry  foods  may  be  known  digestion  experiments  must 
be  made  with  poultry.  Some  work  has  already  been  done 
with  fowls,  but  hardly  enough  to  definitely  establish  feed- 
ing standards.  So  far  the  results  indicate  that  the  digesti- 
bility of  certain  foods  does  not  vary  much  whether  fed  to 
fowls  or  to  farm  animals. 

In  the  above  table  the  figures  for  lives  cock  were  used  in 
computing  the  nutritive  ratio. 

Digestion  Coefficients. — This  is  the  term  used  in  speak- 
ing of  the  percentage  of  foods  that  is  digestible.  The 
digestion  experiments  that  have  been  made  with  poultry 
haVe  been  mainly  those  by  Bartlett  of  the  Maine  Station 
(Bulletin  184),  Brown  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
(Bulletin  156),  and  Fields  and  Ford  of  the  Oklahoma 
Station  (Bulletin  46).  A  table  of  the  digestion  coefficients, 
giving  the  average  results  of  all  these  analyses,  has  been 
compiled  by  Bartlett  and  published  in  the  Maine  Station 
bulletin  184.  This  includes  the  results  of  work  of  several 
European  investigators. 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF   FEEDING 


233 


AVERAGE    DIGESTION    COEFFICIENTS    OBTAINED    WITH    POULTRY 

TO  DATE 


II 


KJ 


Bran,  wheat     

3 

46  70 

71  70 

46 

37 

Beef  scrap  
Beef  (lean  meat)   .  . 
Barley 

2 
2 
3 

80.20 
87.65 
7717 

92.60 
90.20 
7732 

8509 

95 
86.30 
67  86 

Buckwheat  .  .    . 

2 

69.38 

5940 

86.99 

8922 

Corn,  whole  

16 

86.87 

81.55 

91.32 

88.11 

Corn,  cracked  
Corn,  meal  
Clover  

2 
2 
3 

83.30 
83.10 
27.70 

72.20 
74.60 
70.60 

88.10 
86 
14.30 

87.60 
87.60 
35.50 

India  wheat  

3 

72.70 

75 

83.40 

83.80 

Millet 

2 

62  40 

98  39 

85.71 

Oats 

13 

62.69 

71.31 

90.10 

87.89 

Peas       

3 

77.07 

87 

84.80 

80.01 

Wheat  

10 

82.26 

75.05 

87.04 

53 

Eye 

2 

79.20 

66.90 

86.70 

22.60 

Potato    . 

6 

78.33 

46.94 

84.46 

'  These  results  should  be  taken  as  more  or  less  tentative 
until  further  work  has  been  done  and  the  final  results  based 
on  the  averages  of  a  great  many  analyses. 

It  is  noted  with  interest  that  this  compilation  gives  a 
higher  coefficient  for  corn  than  for  wheat.  If  this  finding 
should  prove  to  be  final  it  would  mean  that  the  value  of  the 
protein  in  the  corn  was  about  8%  greater  than  that  of 
wheat;  the  carbohydrates  about  5%  greater,  and  the  fat  or 
ether  extract  about  66%  greater.  These  results  are  not 
presented  as  final,  but  rather  as  a  record  to  date  of  progress 
in  a  very  important  line  of  research.  On  the  whole,  the 
work  indicates  that  the  digestibility  of  foods  may  not  vary 
a  great  deal  whether  fed  to  poultry  or  to  livestock. 


234  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Palatability. — It  has  been  pertinently  said  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  make  a  mixture  of  wet  leather  and  a  petroleum 
jelly  that  would  give  the  same  result  as  meat  by  the  ordin- 
ary food  analysis.  Palatability  comes  in  here.  Leather  and 
petroleum  jelly  would  scarcely  be  as  palatable  as  meat,  nor 
would  it  be  expected  that  the  one  would  give  as  good  an 
egg  yield  as  the  other. 

Again,  while  a  high  digestibility  of  food  is  important, 
yet  digestibility  is  not  a  certain  measure  of  the  value  of 
the  food.  Sherman  in  "Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition/' 
says:  "Foods  similar  in  chemical  composition  and  equally 
well  digested,  may  or  may  not  be  of  equal  nutritive  value, ' ' 
and  again :  ' l  The  coefficient  of  digestibility  is  but  little  in- 
fluenced by  the  palatability  of  the  food." 

Summing  Up. — We  have  here  three  factors — there  may 
be  others — that  must  be  taken  into  account  in  arriving  at 
the  true  value  of  a  food ;  namely,  composition,  digestibility 
and  palatability.  While  any  of  these  factors,  standing 
alone,  may  not  mean  much  to  the  feeder,  no  one  of  them 
must  be  disregarded.  In  proportion  as  his  knowledge  cov- 
ers all  three  factors  he  will  be  able  to  feed  intelligently; 
but  after  all  the  knowledge  that  comes  from  practical  feed- 
ing experiments  is  all  important  and  necessary  to  a  com- 
plete knowledge  of  the  value  of  any  particular  ration. 

Digestive  Organs. — The  organs  of  the  fowl  concerned 
in  digestion  of  food  are  shown  on  p.  235.  This  photo- 
graph shows  the  various  organs  beginning  with  the  man- 
dibles or  beak  used  for  picking  up  food.  The  tongue  moist- 
ens the  food  with  saliva,  after  which  the  food  passes 
through  the  esophagus,  or  gullet,  on  the  way  to  the  crop, 
where  it  remains  about  12  hours.  The  food  is  here  soften- 
ed and  then  passes  into  the  stomach  where  it  is  mixed  with 
gastric  juices  and  passes  on  into  the  gizzard.  The  gizzard 
is  the  largest  organ  of  the  hen,  and  its  office  is  to  crush  or 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  OF  THE  FOWL 

1,  2.  Upper  and  lower  mandibles.  3.  Esophagus.  4.  Crop.  5.  Esophagus. 
6.  Stomach.  7.  Gizzard.  8.  Duodenum.  9.  Gall  bladder.  10.  Spleen.  11.  Bile 
ducts.  12.  Liver.  13.  Small  intestine.  14.  Ceca.  15.  Pancreas.  16.  Rectum. 
17.  Cloaca.  18.  Anus.  (Oregon  Agricultural  College.) 


236  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

grind  the  food.  The  tough  muscular  walls  of  the  gizzard 
aided  by  the  grit  that  the  hen  picks  up  takes  the  place  of 
teeth  which  in  domestic  animals  grind  the  food.  The 
moistened  ground  grain  passes  from  the  gizzard  into  the 
large  intestine,  or  duodenum,  where  it  is  acted  upon  by 
the  pancreatic  juices.  The  bile  from  the  liver  also  enters 
the  duodenum  and  aids  in  the  digestion  of  the  fats  of  the 
food.  The  digestive  process  is  here  completed  and  the  di- 
gested portions  of  the  food  are  absorbed  into  the  blood  and 
the  waste  or  indigestible  portions  forced  on  to  the  cloaca. 
The  ceca  correspond  to  the  appendix  in  man,  and  their 
function  is  not  understood.  The  total  length  of  the  diges- 
tive canal  from  beak  to  vent  is  4  to  5  feet. 

The  digestive  process  of  the  fowl  works  with  extreme 
rapidity.  Investigations  have  shown  that  in  about  two 
days  after  eating,  the  food  has  entered  into  the  making  of 
the  egg  yolk.  In  two  days  after  being  eaten  certain  foods 
have  given  a  color  to  the  outer  layers  of  egg  yolk. 

To  keep  this  complex  system  of  digestion  in  proper  work- 
ing order  requires  a  variety  of  good  food,  abundant  exer- 
cise, and  fresh  air  in  the  house. 

What  Foods  Should  be  Fed. — The  table  of  composition 
of  foods  contains  the  names  of  foods  that  are  used  for  poul- 
try. This  table  does  not,  however,  exhaust  the  list,  as  there 
are  doubtless  other  foods  that  are  used  to  a  limited  extent  in 
different  localities.  The  composition  of  any  food  not  on 
this  list  may  usually  be  obtained  from  the  experiment 
stations. 


CHAPTER  XII 

COMMON  POULTRY  FOODS 

Among  the  Grain  Foods  wheat  is  more  largely  used 
for  poultry  than  any  other  cereal,  taking  the  country  over. 
It  is  a  safer  food  than  most  other  grain  foods,  and  there  is 
probably  no  other  cereal  that  is  better  relished  by  the  fowls. 
It  has  a  near  competitor  in  corn,  and  whether  the  one  or 
the  other  should  be  fed  is  largely  a  question  of  their  prices. 
If  fed  exclusively  on  one  grain,  fowls  would  probably  give 
better  results  in  egg  yield  on  wheat  than  on  corn.  Judging 
from  the  composition,  wheat  has  a  slight  advantage  over 
corn  for  egg  production,  while  corn  is  better  for  fattening. 

It  is  not  a  question,  however,  of  one  kind  of  grain ;  no  one 
should  expect  a  profit  from  fowls  when  fed  one  kind  of 
food,  no  matter  what  kind  of  food  it  may  be.  "When  fed 
in  combination  with  other  foods  it  is  an  open  question 
whether  wheat  or  corn  is  the  more  economical  to  feed  at  the 
same  price  per  pound  for  each.  No  serious  mistake  will  be 
made  by  the  poultryman  if  he  makes  the  market  price  the 
basis  for  selecting  wheat  or  corn. 

Corn  is  an  excellent  poultry  food.  A  few  years  ago 
poultry  writers  generally  advised  poultrymen  not  to  feed  it 
to  laying  hens.  Chemical  analysis  had  shown  it  to  contain 
more  fat-forming  elements  than  wheat,  and  on  this  account 
it  became  very  unpopular,  and  higher  priced  wheat  was  fed 
in  its  place.  Later,  however,  experiment  stations,  in  actual 
feeding  tests,  showed  it  to  be  the  equal  of  wheat  when  fed 
in  proper  combinations.  The  Massachusetts  Station  secured 
as  good,  if  not  better,  results  in  egg  yield  from  corn  as  from 
wheat. 

237 


238  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

But  neither  wheat  nor  corn  is  a  perfect  ration,  and  other 
foods  must  be  fed  to  ''balance"  it.  It  is  a  waste  of  food 
and  labor  to  feed  either  wheat  or  corn  alone. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  those  states  which  are  the 
largest  producers  of  corn  are  the  heaviest  producers  of 
poultry  and  eggs.  This  does  not,  however,  prove  the 


A  THRESHING   SCENE 
The  chickens  will  thresh  their  own  grain  and  save  the  threshing  bill. 

superiority  of  corn,  but  it  disproves  the  old  notion  that 
corn  is  not  a  good  poultry  food. 

Oats. — Pound  for  pound,  oats  are  not  worth  as  much  for 
chickens  as  wheat  or  corn.  Fowls  do  not  relish  oats  as 
well  as  those  grains.  The  large  amount  of  hull  on  the  oats 
is  an  objection.  The  hulls  are  largely  indigestible.  Minus 
the  hulls,  oats  would  be  an  excellent  food  for  laying  or 
fattening  fowls.  Oats  are  not  as  fattening  as  corn  or  wheat, 
and  many  poultrymen  feed  considerable  quantities  of  oats 
to  prevent  the  hens  becoming  too  fat.  Special  care  should 
be  used  in  selecting  oats,  as  they  vary  a  good  deal  in  quality. 
Only  heavy,  plump  oats  should  be  fed.  The  chief  value  of 


COMMON   POULTRY   FOODS  239 

oats  is  in  furnishing  a  necessary  variety  to  the  ration.  This, 
of  course,  is  true  of  other  foods.  Hulled  oats,  if  they  could 
be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  price  would  be  superior  to  corn 
or  wheat. 

9  Barley  is  not  extensively  fed  to  poultry.  Chickens  will 
not  eat  it  if  they  can  get  wheat  or  corn,  or,  at  any  rate,  they 
will  eat  but  little  of  it.  Where  the  price  is  not  more  than 
that  of  other  grains,  a  little  may  be  fed  to  give  variety. 
Many  poultry  feeders  use  rolled  or  chopped  barley  in  the 
mash. 

Wheat  Bran. — Bran  is  the  outer  covering  of  wheat  and 
other  grains,  separated  from  the  flour  in  the  process  of 
milling.  "Wheat  bran  is  richer  in  protein  than  whole  wheat, 
and  has  considerable  ash  or  mineral  matter  other  than  lime. 
Investigations  have  shown  bran  to  be  low  in  digestibility, 
but  nevertheless  it  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  poultry 
foods.  There  is  no  cereal  by-product  more  universally  used 
by  poultry  feeders  than  bran.  Practical  experience  long 
ago  demonstrated  its  high  value  for  poultry,  especially  for 
egg  production.  For  fattening  it  has  not  the  same  value. 
Its  high  feeding  value  for  egg  production  and  for  growing 
chickens  is  undoubtedly  due  to  its  high  mineral  content,  as 
well  as  protein  content.  It  contains  also  more  fat  than  either 
wheat  or  barley.  These  facts,  added  to  its  relative  cheap- 
ness, make  it  an  economical  feed. 

Middlings  and  Shorts. — These  are  other  by-products  of 
wheat  that  are  extensively  used.  They  have  a  high  protein 
content  compared  with  the  whole  wheat,  and  on  this  account 
and  their  relative  cheapness  make  a  liberal  use  of  them  in 
the  mash  desirable.  Middlings  and  shorts  are  composed  of 
the  finer  parts  of  the  bran  with  some  of  the  coarser  parts 
of  the  flour  separated  in  bolting. 

Peas. — Where  peas  can  be  grown  successfully  they  should 
be  used  quite  extensively  as  a  poultry  food.  They  are 


240  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

richer  in  protein  than  any  of  our  common  cereals.  They 
contain  twice  the  quantity  of  protein  that  corn  contains, 
and  on  that  account  are  worth  more  pound  for  pound  than 
corn  or  wheat. 

Rye. — Rye  grain  is  not  a  satisfactory  poultry  food. 
Fowls  do  not  relish  it  though  they  eat  it  in  small  quantities. 
It  lacks  palatability.  When  planted  in  the  yards  in  the 
fall  it  furnishes  an  early  green  food  in  the  spring.  Before 
the  grain  is  fully  ripe  in  the  straw  the  fowls  eat  it  more 
readily,  and  they  may  be  allowed  to  thresh  the  grain  out 
of  the  straw  in  the  yards. 

Rice. — Broken  rice  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
certain  sections  as  food  for  small  chickens.  Rice  polish  is 
rich  in  the  mineral  element  phosphorus. 

Linseed  Meal. — The  meal  of  flaxseed  from  which  the  oil 
has  been  largely  extracted  in  the  process  of  manufacture 
of  linseed  oil  is  largely  used  as  a  poultry  food.  Old  process 
meal  contains  more  oil  than  the  new  process  meal,  and  on 
that  account  is  more  valuable.  Linseed  meal  has  also  a 
high  percentage  of  the  mineral  compounds  phosphorus, 
iron,  sulphur  and  magnesium.  It  is  a  rich  food  and  can 
only  be  used  in  limited  quantities.  If  it  can  be  purchased 
at  a  reasonable  price,  or  on  the  basis  of  its  protein  content, 
it  may  well  be  used  profitably  as  a  part  of  a  laying  ration. 

Buckwheat. — This  is  a  good  poultry  food,  but  its  use  is 
limited  on  account  of  an  uncertain  supply  and  its  high 
price  in  most  sections. 

Sunflower  Seed. — The  sunflower  plant  may  be  profitably 
used  for  a  double  purpose.  It  is  largely  used  for  furnish- 
ing shade.  The  seeds  contain  a  high  percentage  of  oil. 
They  ripen  about  moulting  time  when  foods  of  a  consider- 
able oil  content  are  desirable.  The  seed  may  be  fed  in 
limited  amount  throughout  the  year,  but  during  the  moult- 
ing season  in  the  growth  of  new  feathers  there  is  an  extra 


COMMON   POULTRY  FOODS  241 

demand  for  food  of  this  character.     It  has  been  observed 
to  give  a  glossy  and  attractive  appearance  to  the  plumage. 

Animal  Foods. — The  hen  is  a  meat  eater.  Animal  food 
of  some  kind  is  necessary  for  fowls  to  maintain  their  health 
and  vigor,  and  to  make  them  productive  either  in  meat  or 
eggs.  A  knowledge  of  this  fact  has  done  more  to  increase 
the  poultryman's  profits  than  any  other  one  thing  in  poul- 
try feeding.  The  scarcity  of  eggs  in  winter  is  largely  due 
to  a  lack  of  animal  food.  The  fact  that  chickens  when 
given  the  liberty  of  the  fields  in  summer  find  animal  food 
in  the  form  of  bugs,  angleworms,  grasshoppers,  etc.,  escapes 
the  notice  of  the  farmer,  and  in  winter  he  does  not  see  the 
necessity  of  feeding  it.  In  most  parts  of  the  country,  dur- 
ing the  winter,  chickens  are  unable  to  obtain  animal  food  in 
the  fields,  especially  in  sections  where  snow  covers  the 
ground.  In  sections  with  mild  and  open  winters,  they  find 
many  angleworms,  especially  during  the  rainy  season. 
But  in  most  sections,  if  not  in  all,  fowls  must  be  liberally 
fed  with  some  kind  of  animal  food  to  obtain  best  results. 
,  There  are  a  number  of  forms  in  which  animal  food  may 
be  fed.  Fresh,  lean  meat  is  undoubtedly  the  best  kind  of 
animal  food.  It  is  the  lean  meat  that  furnishes  the  protein, 
but  there  is  no  objection  to  having  the  lean  mixed  with  a 
little  fat ;  this  may  be  an  advantage  at  times.  Fresh  meat 
scraps  or  cut  "bone  from  the  butchers'  stalls  are  an  ex- 
cellent egg-maker.  Some  butchers  keep  a  bone  cutter  and 
sell  the  meat  and  bones  all  ready  ground  or  cut  up.  When 
one  has  a  sufficient  number  of  hens,  say  25  or  more,  it 
will  pay  to  buy  a  good  bone  cutter  and  cut  the  bones.  The 
scraps  contain  a  large  proportion  of  bone,  and  the  fowls 
eat  these  very  greedily,  as  well  as  the  meat.  They  furnish 
the  mineral  matter  necessary  for  bone  making  and  for  egg- 
shell making. 

Skim  milk  will  take  the  place    of    animal  food  if  fed 


242  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

liberally  enough.  The  trouble  with  skim  milk  is  that  it  is 
not  concentrated  enough;  that  is,  it  is  largely  water,  90 
pounds  in  a  hundred  being  water.  In  other  words,  in  100 
pounds  skim  milk  there  are  only  10  pounds  food.  Even 
with  milk  kept  before  them  all  the  time  to  drink,  laying 
hens  will  not  get  enough  of  it  to  supply  the  demand  for 
animal  food.  If  wet  mashes  are  fed,  by  using  skim  milk 
to  mix  the  mash  they  will  get  more  of  it  in  this  way.  By 
feeding  it  clabbered  the  fowls  will  get  more  food  out  of 
it.  Probably  the  best  way  to  feed  milk  is  to  make  ' '  cottage 
cheese "  out  of  it.  This  is  a  splendid  food  when  properly 
made.  In  that  form  fowls  will  consume  enough  to  supply 
the  demand  for  animal  food. 

It  is  made  in  this  way :  Set  a  can  of  skim  milk  in  a  place 
having  a  temperature  of  75  to  80  degrees.  In  18  to  24 
hours  the  milk  will  coagulate  (thicken).  Then  break  up 
into  pieces  the  size  of  large  peas  or  smaller;  set  can  in  a 
pail  of  hot  water,  stirring  the  curd  until  a  temperature  of 
90  to  95  degrees  is  reached;  hold  at  this  temperature  for 
15  or  20  minutes,  without  stirring.  Then  pour  the  con- 
tents of  the  can  into  a  cotton  sack  and  hang  up  where  the 
whey  can  drain  off.  The  milk  should  not  be  boiled.  Salt 
it  a  little.  It  will  keep  a  day  or  two. 

Buttermilk  is  largely  used  in  fattening  poultry,  the 
large  fattening  establishments  using  it  generally  for  mixing 
the  ground  grain.  In  the  feeding  of  small  chicks  it  has 
special  value  as  a  preventive  of  white  diarrhrea.  It  is  also 
profitably  used  in  the  laying  ration.  The  mash  may  be 
mixed  with  it  and  the  fowls  also  given  all  they  will  drink 
of  it.  At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Professor 
Graham  has  used  it  successfully  as  a  substitute  for  other 
forms  of  animal  food,  and  also  as  substitute  for  water. 
Sour  milk  has  much  the  same  value  as  buttermilk.  By 
withholding  water  more  buttermilk  is  taken  by  the  fowls. 


COMMON   POULTRY   FOODS  243 

Unless  they  can  be  made  to  use  large  quantities  of  it, 
enough  of  the  animal  nutrients  will  not  be  secured  to  supply 
the  need  for  animal  food.  In  100  pounds  of  skim  milk  or 
buttermilk  there  are  only  about  10  pounds  of  solids  or 
food,  and  this  should  be  considered  in  arriving  at  an 
estimate  of  its  value. 

Whey  also  may  be  used  as  a  source  of  animal  food,  but 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  table  of  composition  of  foods,  it  has  a 
lower  value  than  skim  milk  and  buttermilk. 

Milk  Albumin. — This  is  a  by-product  of  the  manufacture 
of  milk  sugar.  It  contains  little  moisture  and  a  high  per- 
centage of  protein,  but  it  is  low  in  other  nutrients.  All 
forms  of  milk  foods  lack  in  mineral  matter,  also  in  fat. 
Where  milk  is  used  bones  should  be  fed  either  dry  or  green 
to  furnish  the  required  mineral  matter. 

Beef  Scrap  is  the  most  convenient  form  in  which  to 
feed  animal  food.  This  is  a  by-product  of  the  large  packing 
houses,  and  contains  meat  and  bones  in  varying  propor- 
tions which  have  gone  through  a  boiling  and  drying  process. 
It  contains,  therefore,  little  moisture  compared  with  fresh 
meat  scraps."  It  varies  considerably  in  composition,  but 
should  contain  from  50%  to  60%  protein.  Beef  scrap  varies 
also  in  quality.  It  should  be  light  colored  with  a  meaty 
flavor  and  somewhat  oily  to  the  touch.  "When  boiling 
water  is  poured  over  it,  it  should  have  a  fresh,  meaty  flavor. 
If  it  gives  off  a  putrid  odor,  do  not  feed  it. 

Fish  Scrap  is  coming  into  use  as  a  substitute  for  beef 
scrap.  Its  practical  value,  however,  compared  with  beef 
scrap  has  not  been  experimentally  determined,  but  the 
practice  of  feeding  it  is  growing,  especially  on  the  Pacific 
Coast.  The  oil  being  largely  removed  in  its  manufacture, 
there  is  no  fishy  taste  transmitted  to  the  eggs  and  chickens 
by  its  use.  If  fresh  fish,  however,  is  liberally  eaten  there 
will  be  a  distinct  flavor  given  to  the  egg. 


244  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

Green  Foods. — Green  food  of  some  kind  is  an  essential 
part  of  the  ration  or  diet.  The  health  of  the  fowls  and  the 
demands  of  egg  production  require  it.  The  lack  of  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  green  food  is  one  cause  of  the  scarcity  of 
eggs  in  winter.  During  the  summer  the  farmers'  flocks, 
which  furnish  the  markets  with  the  large  proportion  of 
eggs  and  poultry,  usually  find  all  the  green  food  necessary, 
but  in  winter,  since  the  farmer  does  not  realize  the  im- 
portance of  providing  green  food,  the  chickens  do  without 
it  and  we  do  without  the  eggs.  Spring  is  the  natural  laying 
season ;  but  by  seeing  to  it  that  the  fowls  get  the  same  kind 
of  food  in  winter  that  they  do  in  spring  or  summer,  it  is 
.possible  to  overcome  largely  the  egg  famine  in  winter. 
Fowls  should  have  all  the  green  food  they  will  eat  at  all 
times.  Green  food  is  cheap,  or  should  be  grown  cheaply 
with  good  management. 

Green  food  may  be  fed  in  different  forms.  Clover  or 
alfalfa  or  grass  in  the  fields ;  clover  leaves  or  alfalfa  leaves 
in  the  haymow  or  in  the  haystack,  make  excellent  green 
food;  vetch,  peavine,  rape,  rye,  kale,  mangels,  sugar  beets, 
cabbages,  lettuce  or  turnips  will  fill  the  bill.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  these  green  foods  have  a  larger  percentage  of 
mineral  matter  or  ash,  and  of  protein,  than  the  grain  foods. 
Alfalfa  and  kale  are  especially  rich  in  protein  and  ash. 
Clover,  alfalfa,  grass,  rape,  kale  and  vetch,  will  give  good 
color  to  the  yolk  of  the  egg;  beets  will  not.  Alfalfa  and 
clover  will  give  eggs  of  good  quality  and  flavor.  Kale, 
cabbages  and  rape  will  give  a  slightly  undesirable  flavor  to 
the  eggs  if  eaten  heavily,  but  not  enough  to  injure  their 
selling  value  materially,  if  at  all.  If  fed  regularly,  how- 
ever, so  the  fowls  may  eat  it  at  will,  there  is  no  evidence 
that  an  undesirable  flavor  will  be  imparted  to  the  egg. 

In  western  Oregon  and  the  Pacific  Coast  generally 
thousand-headed  kale  is  probably  the  most  profitable  crop 


COMMON   POULTRY  FOODS  245 

to  grow  for  winter  forage.  Here  it  grows  to  perfection, 
and  an  acre  may  be  made  to  produce  40  tons  of  green  forage. 
For  winter  green  food,  kale  is  transplanted  in  July  from 
seed  sown  in  May  or  June.  For  summer  forage  it  is  planted 
early  in  the  season.  It  is  possible  in  western  Oregon  to 
have  green  kale  the  year  round.  For  a  flock  of  one  hundred 
hens,  about  two  hundred  plants  will  furnish  green  food 
enough  for  a  year  where  the  soil  has  plenty  of  fertility  and 
moisture.  The  plants  should  average  20  pounds  each. 
The  chickens  will  eat  about  half  the  weight  of  the  plant, 
the  balance  being  stalk  which  they  do  not  use.  Cattle  will 
eat  most  of  the  stalk.  Planted  in  July,  the  kale  may  be 
fed  from  October  to  April.  Planted  early  in  the  spring 
from  seed  sown  in  the  fall,  it  will  be  ready  for  use  in  the 
summer.  In  the  early  part  of  the  season  the  lower  leaves 
may  be  stripped  off  and  the  rest  of  the  plant  will  continue 
to  grow. 

The  plants  are  set  about  3  feet  apart  each  way.  A  very 
small  piece  of  ground,  therefore,  will  grow  enough  kale 
(or  one  hundred  hens.  A  strip  of  good  land  16  feet  wide 
and  100  feet  long  should  furnish  enough  green  feed  in  the 
form  of  kale  for  one  hundred  hens.  At  that  rate,  an  acre 
of  kale  will  furnish  green  food  for  2,000  hens  throughout 
the  year.  Kale  may  also  be  utilized  for  shade  for  fowls. 
Where  fowls  are  yarded,  by  having  double  yards,  it  is 
possible  where  kale  grows  the  year  around  to  make  it 
furnish  the  green  food  and  shade  all  the  year.  Kale  will 
keep  the  yards  in  sanitary  condition,  turning  the  manure 
and  filth  into  a  revenue. 

Vetch  and  Oats. — This  makes  a  good  combination  for 
early  spring  green  feed  in  sections  where  vetch  grows  well. 
Vetch  is  a  leguminous  crop,  like  clover  and  alfalfa. 

Beets. — Sugar  beets  and  mangel-wurzels  are  used  by 
many  poultrymen  for  green  food.  The  tops  may  be  fed 


246  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

green  and  the  beets  stored  for  winter  use.  One  peculiarity 
of  beets  is  that  they  do  not  furnish  the  coloring  matter  for 
the  egg  yolk,  as  do  clover,  alfalfa,  kale,  and  other  greens. 
In  case  the  yolk  is  too  highly  colored,  beets  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  part  of  the  other  green  feed  that  is  responsible 
for  the  color. 

Beet  Pulp. — Dried  beet  pulp  is  now  used  to  a  consider- 
able extent  in  stock  feeding.  It  may  be  used  as  green  food 
for  poultry.  In  addition  to  its  value  as  a  succulent  food, 
it  contains  a  fairly  high  percentage  of  mineral  matter. 
This  makes  it  of  more  value  than  some  other  green  foods. 
There  is  little  authoritative  data  on  the  subject  of  beet 
pulp  as  a  poultry  feed,  and  at  the  present  time  it  should 
be  used  experimentally. 

Sprouted  Oats. — Sprouted  oats  may  be  resorted  to 
where  other  forms  of  green  feed  are  not  available.  This 
green  food  is  very  greatly  relished  by  the  fowls. 

Oats  and  Peas. — "Oats  and  peas  sown  together  very 
thinly,  with  a  liberal  seeding  of  red  clover  and  a  very  little 
rape,  make  a  good  combination.  The  oats  and  peas  furnish 
a  rapid  growth  of  green  food,  a  good  deal  of  which  will  get 
tramped  down  and  some  will  go  to  seed,  but  it  will  serve 
to  protect  the  clover  and  rape,  which  will  make  good  food 
for  the  late  summer  and  fall  pasturage.  Three  pecks  of 
oats,  two  pecks  of  peas,  one  pint  of  rape  seed  and  five  quarts 
of  red  clover  seed  will  be  a  good  proportion  for  seeding. 
The  oats  and  peas  should  first  be  harrowed  in  deeply,  then 
the  clover  and  rape  seed  should  be  mixed  and  sown,  then 
lightly  scratched  in  with  a  weeder." — PROF.  JAMES  E.  RICE. 

Potatoes  may  sometimes  be  fed  for  variety,  if  boiled  and 
mixed  with  mash,  but  they  are  not  a  good  egg  food;  they 
are  better  fitted  for  fattening. 

Cabbages  are  very  much  relished.  Apples  of  sour 
varieties  should  be  sparingly  fed  to  poultry.  On  the  whole, 


COMMON  POULTRY  FOODS  247 

clover  and  alfalfa  are  probably  the  most  satisfactory  green 
food  we  have.  In  coast  regions,  where  it  grows  throughout 
the  year,  the  thousand-headed  kale  by  reason  of  its  heavy 
yielding  quality  is  probably  the  most  profitable  green  food 
to  grow.  But  it  may  be  supplemented  by  other  green  food 
such  as  clover,  alfalfa  or  lawn  clippings. 

Grit. — ' l  The  hen  coins  silver  out  of  sand. ' '  The  chickens 
need  grit  as  well  as  the  poultryman,  but  of  a  different  kind. 
There  are  two  views  about  chicken  grit,  and  I  do  not  pre- 
tend to  reconcile  them.  One  view  is  that  the  -chief  function 
of  grit  is  to  grind  the  food;  the  other  is  that  grit  itself  is 
food.  Whatever  the  function,  we  know  that  grit  is  a  neces- 
sary part  of  the  diet,  and  the  health  and  productiveness  of 
the  fowls  require  a  liberal  consumption  of  grit.  On  most 
farms,  where  the  fowls  have  the  liberty  of  the  fields,  they 
will  pick  up  all  the  grit  necessary,  but  on  soils  having  little 
or  no  sand  or  gravel,  and  where  the  fowls  are  confined  in 
yards,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  furnish  grit  just  as 
regularly  as  food.  With  a  gravel  bed  located  near  the 
'poultry  *  yards,  the  grit  question  is  easily  and  cheaply 
solved.  Give  them  plenty  of  sharp  gravel  and  sand  to  work 
over.  Where  this  is  not  available,  grit  may  be  cheaply 
purchased  at  the  poultry  supply  houses.  Keep  it  where 
the  hens  can  get  it  at  any  time. 

Egg-shell  Material. — Ordinary  grit  probably  furnishes 
material  for  egg  shells,  but  in  addition  it  will  be  found  ad- 
visable to  feed  special  shell  material.  The  grains  do  not  con- 
tain lime  enough  to  furnish  sufficient  shell  material  for 
heavy  laying  hens.  Ordinary  sea  shells  and  especially  oyster 
shells  are  largely  used  for  this  purpose.  They  are  very 
readily  dissolved  in  the  gizzard.  The  egg-eating  habit 
among  hens  is  sometimes  acquired  because  of  a  scarcity  of 
lime  or  shell  material  in  the  ration. 

Charcoal  is  a  bowel  regulator,  and  most  of  the  successful 


248  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

poultrymen  feed  it  regularly.  It  may  be  kept  in  a  box  or 
hopper  where  the  fowls  can  eat  it  at  will.  Salt  is  an  aid  to 
digestion.  It  may  be  fed  at  the  rate  of  about  an  ounce  or 
two  ounces  per  day  to  one  hundred  hens. 

Pepper  is  stimulating  and  should  not  be  fed  except  in 
very  small  amounts.  Hens  in  good  health  do  not  need  it. 
It  is  sometimes  useful  in  case  of  sickness  in  the  flock.  If 
the  flock  should  be  afflicted  with  colds  a  little  red  pepper 
may  be  mixed  in  the  soft  feed. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

METHODS  OF  FEEDING 

While  a  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  foods  should 
be  possessed  in  order  to  feed  successfully,  it  is  equally 
important  that  there  should  be  a  knowledge  of  how  to  feed. 
It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  poultryman  should  have  all  the 
best  available  poultry  foods.  He  may  have  all  the  neces- 
sary foods,  and  fail  in  the  purpose  for  which  he  feeds.  The 
laying  hens  may  have  all  the  best  available  foods  and  yet 
refuse  to  lay  eggs  unless  the  food  comes  to  them  in  a  cer- 
tain way.  Success  in  feeding  for  egg  production  will  be 
measured  largely  by  the  methods  followed  in  feeding. 

Exercise  and  Activity. — The  secret,  if  there  be  any 
secret,  in  how  to  feed  to  get  eggs  is  to  feed  in  such  a  way 
that  the  natural  activity  of  the .  hen  may  be  maintained. 
In  the  production  of  flesh  or  meat  in  domestic  animals  as 
well  as  in  poultry,  activity  or  exercise  counts  for  little,  nor 
is  exercise  so  important  for  the  cow  that  is  producing  milk, 
but  activity  is  the  life  of  the  hen.  She  is  given  toe-nails  to 
scratch  with,  legs  to  walk  with,  wings  to  fly  with.  If  there 
is  any  one  characteristic  more  than  another  that  indicates 
the  good  layer,  it  is  the  active  use  of  those  organs  in  her 
every-day  life. 

The  vigor  of  the  hen  comes  largely  from  her  activity,  and 
it  is  the  vigorous  hen  that  lays.  The  reason  hens  on  free 
range  often  do  better  than  others  confined  in  yards,  is 
largely  because  of  the  active  life  they  live.  Under  the 
free-range  system  the  poultryman  need  concern  himself 
little  on  this  point,  but  when  fowls  are  confined  in  yards, 

249 


250  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

which  is  an  artificial  condition,  great  care  must  be  taken 
to  furnish  the  exercise  or  the  incentive  to  exercise.  A  hen 
that ' t  stands  around ' '  all  day,  only  exerting  herself  enough 
to  eat  out  of  a  hopper,  is  an  unproductive  hen. 

The  exercise  is  best  furnished  by  providing  a  roomy 
scratching  floor  or  shed  covered  with  a  deep  litter  of  straw. 
This  may  be  from  8  to  12  inches  deep,  and  should  be  kept 
reasonably  dry.  The  whole  grain  food  should  be  scattered 
in  this  straw.  There  will  be  no  waste  in  this,  as  the  fowls 
will  find  about  every  kernel.  The  skill  of  the  poultryman 
comes  in  feeding  enough  at  a  time,  without  having  to  feed 
too  often,  to  keep  the  hens  busy  at  work  a  large  portion  of 
the  day.  If  too  much  is  given  at  a  feed  the  fowls  will  soon 
satisfy  their  appetites,  while  if  too  little  is  given  they  will 
soon  clean  it  up  and  there  will  be  nothing  to  scratch  for. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  keep  them  scratching  all  day.  Leg- 
horns, for  instance,  will  do  nearly  as  well  when  fed  in  a 
hopper  or  box.  If  they  have  a  yard  and  a  floor  they  will 
exercise  themselves  whether  compelled  to  dig  for  their 
food  or  not.  Forced  exercise,  however,  is  necessary  for 
the  larger  or  less  active  breeds. 

In  an  experiment  three  pullets  kept  in  a  small  pen  on  a 
board  floor  without  any  litter,  laid  116  eggs  in  a  year,  an 
average  of  38  2-3  eggs  each.  One  of  these  was  a  Leghorn 
pullet  which  laid  52  eggs.  Leghorns  fed  in  straw  averaged 
169  per  fowl,  and  others  fed  in  boxes  or  hoppers  averaged 
161.  Both  were  kept  in  pens  without  floors  and  had  access 
to  an  outside  yard.  They  exercised  a  good  deal  by  scratch- 
ing in  the  earth.  Two  pens  of  Plymouth  Rocks  averaged 
141  fed  in  straw,  and  two  fed  in  boxes  averaged  118  eggs 
each.  In  each  case  the  ration  was  the  same.  It  is  seen  that 
the  method  of  feeding  was  responsible  for  a  variation  in 
yield  of  from  38  eggs  per  fowl  to  169.  The  experiment 
showed  that  no  exercise,  or  forced  idleness,  was  ruinous 


METHODS  OF   FEEDING  251 

both  to  production  and  to  health  of  fowls.  Second,  it 
showed  that  Leghorns,  or  the  active  breeds,  will  do  well 
even  though  they  are  not  forced  to  scratch;  but  that  the 
heavier  breeds  need  some  ' '  forced ' '  exercise. 

Feeding  yarded  fowls  in  the  litter,  therefore,  is  a  de- 
cided advantage  with  some  breeds,  and  it  is  an  advantage 
with  any  breed.  A  Leghorn  given  the  liberty  of  a  yard 
and  a  floor  to  scratch  on,  even  though  all  grain  be  fed  in  a 
hopper  or  box,  will  take  exercise  enough  to  produce  fairly 
well.  The  chief  disadvantage  of  feeding  in  the  litter  is 
that  the  grain  is  liable  to  become  contaminated  with  the 
droppings  of  the  fowls,  which  is  a  fruitful  method  of  carry- 
ing disease  from  one  fowl  to  another.  This  method,  how- 
ever, is  usually  necessary  with  most  fowls,  and  with  care  in 
renewing  the  straw  often  enough,  little  danger  need  be 
feared  from  this  source.  The  droppings  from  the  fowls  at 
night  should  not  be  permitted  to  mingle  with  the  litter. 

Ground  or  Unground  Grain. — It  pays  to  feed  part  of 
the  grain  ground.  It  is  a  saving  of  energy,  and  energy  is 
furnished  by  the  food ;  therefore,  it  will  save  food  to  grind 
some  of  the  grain  for  the  fowls.  Ground  food  is  more 
quickly  digested  and  assimilated  than  whole.  The  hen  can 
manufacture  the  eggs  faster  with  ground  food  than  with 
whole  grain.  Experiments  by  "Wheeler  showed  that  fowls 
having  half  their  grain  ground  and  moistened  required 
20%  less  food  to  produce  a  dozen  eggs  than  fowls  having 
all  whole  grain.  Fowls,  however,  relish  the  whole  grain, 
or  a  large  percentage  of  it  whole.  Probably  one-third  of 
the  grain  ground  would  be  a  safe  limit  to  feed.  The  danger 
in  feeding  one-half  or  more  of  it  ground  would  be  that  the 
fowls  would  be  liable  to  lose  appetite  and  not  eat  enough 
to  fill  the  demand  for  heavy  egg  yield. 

Best  Time  to  Feed  Wet  Mash.— If  fed  heavily  on  wet 
mash  in  the  morning,  the  fowls  would  gorge  themselves  and 


252  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

would  not  be  as  active  the  rest  of  the  day  as  if  fed  a  light 
feed  of  grain  in  the  litter  in  the  morning.  A  good  feed  of 
mash  about  an  hour  before  going  to  roost,  followed  by  a 
feed  of  whole  grain,  will  give  satisfactory  results.  In  cold 
weather  especially  the  practice  of  feeding  whole  grain 
liberally  the  last  feed  of  the  day  is  a  good  one.  "Whole 
grain  will  "stay  with  them"  better  throughout  the  long, 
cold  night  than  mash,  and  keep  up  the  heat  of  the  body 
better.  It  will  save  feeding  in  the  morning  if  at  the  last 
feed  at  night  enough  grain  is  thrown  on  the  litter  to  more 
than  satisfy  the  fowls,  and  leave  some  for  them  to  begin 
scratching  for  in  the  morning.  Where  wet  mash  is  fed 
the  first  thing  in  the  morning,  this  should  not  be  done.  The 
writer  prefers  to  feed  the  mash  in  the  morning,  just  as  soon 
as  the  fowls  come  from  the  roost,  but  to  feed  only  as  much 
as  they  will  eat  up  readily  so  they  will  go  to  work  scratch- 
ing in  the  straw  for  the  whole  grain.  It  is  not  so  material 
at  what  time  of  the  day  the  soft  food  is  fed,  as  it  is  that  the 
fowls  be  kept  active  and  retain  their  appetites. 

Length  of  Day  and  Egg  Yield. — There  is  no  doubt  some 
connection  between  the  lower  egg  yield  in  winter  and  the 
shorter  days.  When  the  spring  comes  and  the  feeding  day 
lengthens  there  is  an  increase  in  production.  Some  of  this 
increase  is  probably  due  to  the  longer  period  of  activity 
and  the  necessarily  greater  consumption  of  food.  Some 
support  is  given  to  this  theory  by  recent  private  experi- 
ments in  the  use  of  electric  light  in  the  poultry  house.  It 
is  a  point  worthy  of  further  investigation. 

Wet  versus  Dry  Mash. — Dry  feeding  saves  labor.  Fowls 
relish  the  wet  mash  better.  Wet  mash  economizes  in  the 
ration.  By  feeding  the  mash  dry,  it  may  be  fed  once  a 
week  in  hoppers.  When  fed  moist  it  must  be  fed  once  a 
day.  Fowls  will  eat  wet  mash  more  greedily  than  dry,  and 
for  that  reason  more  care  is  required  in  feeding  it.  If 


METHODS   OF   FEEDING  253 

given  too  much,  they  will  gorge  themselves  and  stand 
around  lazily  most  of  the  day;  this  should  be  guarded 
against.  Where  skim  milk  is  available  it  is  possible  to 
cheapen  the  ration  by  feeding  wet  mash.  Cheap  by- 
products, such  as  bran  and  middlings,  may  be  made  to 
make  up  a  large  proportion  of  the  ration  by  mixing  them 
with  milk.  By  making  a  mash  with  milk,  more  milk  may 
be  fed  to  the  fowls.  It  will  also  cheapen  the  ration  where 
skim  milk  is  cheap  by  saving  on  higher-priced  animal  foods. 
Where  heavy  feeding  of  ground  grain  is  desired,  it  should 
be  fed  wet.  On  the  majority  of  the  large  poultry  ranches 
of  the  Petaluma,  Cal.,  and  of  the  Little  Compton,  R.  I., 
districts  the  wet  mash  method  is  used. 

When  skillfully  fed,  the  wet  mash  will  give  better  re- 
sults in  egg  yield  than  dry.  The  high  egg  records  of  the 
Oregon  Station  were  secured  by  wet  mash  feeding.  Results 
of  experiments  by  Rice  are  slightly  in  favor  of  dry  mash. 
Gowell  also  secured  results  favorable  to  dry  feeding.  In 
mixing  wet  mash,  enough  water  or  milk  should  be  used  to 
make  the  mash  crumbly.  It  should  not  be  sloppy.  Usually 
about  as  much  ground  grain,  by  weight,  as  milk  or  water 
will  be  about  right. 

The  results  in  feeding  mash  do  not  depend  upon  the 
moisture  or  lack  of  moisture  in  it,  but  upon  the  amount  of 
ground  grain  consumed.  It  matters  little  whether  the  water 
is  put  into  it  by  the  feeder,  or  whether  the  hen  herself 
drinks  the  water  from  the  creek  or  the  water  fountain. 

Feeding  Dry  Mash. — The  dry  mash  is  fed  in  hoppers 
large  enough  for  a  week's  supply  or  more,  and  the  fowls 
allowed  to  eat  it  at  will.  The  dry  mash  may  have  the  same 
composition  as  the  dry  material  in  the  wet,  but  about  10% 
of  its  weight  should  be  beef  scrap.  The  fowls  will  eat  it 
more  readily  then.  Without  the  beef  scrap  they  will  not 
eat  enough  of  the  ground  grain.  In  addition  a  hopper  of 


254  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

beef  scrap  may  be  kept  before  them  all  the  time.  This  will 
insure  that  they  get  enough  of  tlie  animal  food. 

Cut  Bones  may  be  fed  every  day,  or  three  times  a  week, 
as  much  as  the  fowls  will  clean  up  in  15  minutes.  Three  to 
four  ounces  per  hen  per  week  is  about  right.  More  will 
be  consumed  during  heavy  laying  than  at  other  times. 

Cooking  Food. — It  does  not  pay  usually  to  cook  feeds. 
Most  feeds  give  better  results  when  fed  raw.  Starchy 
feeds,  such  as  potatoes,  are  improved  by  cooking,  but  usually 
it  is  better  not  to  cook  feeds.  In  feeding  raw  meat  foods, 
there  is  some  danger  of  the  fowls  contracting  disease.  If 
liver  or  lights  are  fed,  they  should  be  boiled  to  kill  any 
disease  germs  there  may  be  in  them.  Digestion  experiments 
at  Geneva  (New  York  Report,  1885),  show  that  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  protein  in  several  of  the  common  stock  feeds 
was  injured  by  cooking. 

Hopper  Feeding. — There  are  two  fundamental  consider- 
ations in  methods  of  feeding.  The  first  is  the  method  of 
weighing  out  at  each  feeding  a  certain  definite  amount  of 
feed.  The  second  allows  the  hen  herself  to  make  good  from 
the  hopper  any  lack  of  nutrients  of  any  particular  kind. 
The  writer  believes  it  imperative  that  the  hen  be  allowed 
considerable  latitude  in  satisfying  her  wants  and  in  making 
good  any  shortage  of  at  least  the  mineral  and  animal  feed 
in  the  ration.  It  is  not  conceivable  that  in  a  flock  of  one 
hundred  hens  where  the  individual  egg  production  varies, 
as  we  know  it  does,  the  same  amount  and  kind  of  feed  will 
satisfy  all  of  them.  The  heavy  producer  requires  more  of 
the  animal  protein  foods  and  more  of  the  mineral,  and  the 
only  practicable  method  is  to  furnish  those  nutrients 
ad  libitum  to  the  flock. 

No  Hard  and  Fast  Rules. — In  what  has  gone  before  the 
attempt  has  been  made  to  give  to  the  reader  in  concise  form 
information  in  regard  to  the  general  principles  of  feeding, 


METHODS  OF   FEEDING 


255 


OREGON    STATION    OUTDOOR    DRY    FOOD 
HOPPER 

This     hopper    has    four    divisions    for    different 
foods.     The   fowls  do  not  pull  the  feed  out  of  it 
onto  the  ground.     (Designed  by  C.  C.  Lamb.) 


and  the  composi- 
tion and  values  of 
various  foods.  It  is 
not  presumed  t  o 
lay  down  any  hard 
and  fast  rules 
which  must  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  poul- 
try feeder. 

The  Food  Re- 
quirements vary 
and  methods  o  f 
feeding-  vary  in 
different  sec  tions 
of  the  country  and 
even  on  different 
farms  in  the  same 
section.  A  large  latitude  must  be  allowed  the  individual 
farmer  or  poultry-keeper.  The  highest  success  will  not  be 
attained  .where  the 
poultryman  is  con- 
tent to  follow  set 
rules  and  blindly  at- 
tempt to  make  his 
conditions  and  en- 
vironment conform 
to  the  feed  rations 
rather  than  make 
the  rations  conform 
to  his  special  condi- 
tions. II  av  i  n  g  a 
knowledge  of  foods 

i  •    1         „  -P  OREGON   STATIONARY   OUTDOOR    DRY 

and  principles  of  FOOD  HOPPER 

feeding,     and    the  Showing  inside  construction. 


256  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

food  requirements  of  the  fowl,  he  is  master  of  the  situation 
and  will  be  able  to  formulate  rations  that  will  give  him  the 
most  profitable  returns. 

The  Price  of  Foods  will  largely  govern  choice  of  a 
ration.  Profitable  poultry  production  is  not  a  question  of 
the  best  foods  any  more  than  it  is  a  question  of  the  cheapest 
foods.  That  is  to  say,  the  best  foods  from  the  standpoint 
of  composition  and  palatability  may  produce  more  eggs 
or  more  meat  but  may  produce  less  profit  than  other  foods 
that  are  not  so  valuable,  pound  for  pound,  on  account  of 
their  lower  cost.  The  feed  bill  may  be  so  high  that  the 
poultryman  is  robbed  of  his  profits.  No  one  kind  of  food 
is  so  essential  that  the  poultryman  must  feed  it  no  matter 
what  its  price  may  be.  If  this  one  fact  were  thoroughly 
understood  and  acted  upon  it  would  save  probably  millions 
of  dollars  to  the  poultry-keepers  of  the  country. 

Rations. — With  this  understanding  a  few  sample  rations 
for  egg  production  are  here  given.  The  weights  of  feed 
are  in  pounds,  and  are  figured  on  the  basis  of  one  average 
hen  for  one  year.  It  will  be  understood  that  these  amounts 
will  vary,  first,  as  the  size  of  hen  varies ;  second,  as  produc- 
tion varies,  and  third,  as  the  climate  or  temperature  varies. 
The  amounts  given  approximate  closely  the  amounts  re- 
quired in  egg  production.  The  safe  rule  to  follow  is  to  in- 
crease or  decrease  these  amounts  daily  as  demanded  by  the 
fowls.  There  must  be  no  stinting  of  food  if  a  steady  pro- 
duction of  eggs  is  to  be  maintained. 

The  choice  of  animal  food  is  left  to  the  feeder,  50  pounds 
skim  milk  or  buttermilk,  10  pounds  cut  bones,  and  5  pounds 
beef  scrap  being  estimated  as  of  about  equal  value.  The 
same  is  true  of  green  food,  15  pounds  of  green  alfalfa  or 
clover  being  equal  in  value  to  20  pounds  kale.  This  does 
not  exhaust  the  list  of  animal  food  nor  of  green  food.  It 
may  be,  for  example,  that  fish  scrap  is  more  available  in 


METHODS   OF   FEEDING 


257 


some  sections,  and  various  kinds  of  green  feed  may  be  fed 
with  satisfactory  results.  Such,  foods  are  discussed  in 
another  place. 

SAMPLE  RATIONS  PER  HEN  PER  YEAR    (iN  POUNDS) 

Number  of  Ration 


One 

Two 

Three 

Four 

Five 

Wheat  

60 

40 

30 

20 

Corn    

60 

10 

20 

Oats    

.  . 

10 

10 

10 

Bran  

.  . 

.  . 

10 

10 

10 

Middlings    

.  . 

5 

5 

5 

Linseed  Meal    .  . 

.  . 

.  . 

.  . 

5 

5 

Skim    Milk,  But- 

termilk    (with 

dry  bone)    .  .  . 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

Cut   Bone    

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

Beef   Scrap     .  .  . 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

Vetch,  Alfalfa, 

Clover    

15 

15 

15 

15 

15 

Kale    

20 

20 

20 

20 

20 

Oyster  Shell   .  .  . 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

Salt    . 

14 

14 

*/i 

*/i 

34 

COMPOSITION  OF  RATION  4  (NOT  INCLUDING  GREEN  FOOD  AND 

SHELL) 

Water  8.12  pounds 

Ash    2.14       « 

Protein    13.32        " 

Carbohydrates   48.33        " 

Fat  3.09        " 


Total    75.00        " 

Ratio  of  protein  to  carbohydrates  and  fat  1 :  4.14 

It  is  estimated  that  30  pounds  milk  is  about  all  that  a 
hen  will  ordinarily  consume  in  a  year.  If  no  water  is 
given,  the  fowls  will  use  a  great  deal  more  milk  or  butter- 
milk, probably  enough  to  supply  the  full  demand  for  animal 
food. 


258  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

Under  farm  conditions,  however,  where  fowls  have  free 
range  and  find  a  good  deal  of  animal  food  in  the  fields,  30 
pounds  should  be  sufficient.  They  should  have  access  to  it  at 
all  times.  The  amount  they  will  consume  will  be  governed 
in  part  by  the  amount  of  insects  found  in  the  fields.  By 
making  the  milk  into  cottage  cheese  and  feeding  the  fowls 
all  they  will  eat  of  it,  they  will  get  all  the  animal  food  re- 
quired. Milk  when  closely  skimmed  has  very  little  fat, 
while  bones  and  beef  scrap  have  a  large  amount  of  fat ;  it 
can,  therefore,  be  fed  to  advantage  in  rations  that  in  other 
respects  are  richer  in  fat  than  would  be  necessary  or  ad- 
visable where  cut  bones  are  fed.  Good  fresh  cut  bones  fed 
regularly  will  give  better  results  than  either  milk  or  beef 
scrap,  but  the  cost  is  sometimes  prohibitory,  and  there  is 
danger  of  the  meat  not  being  fresh.  "Where  milk  is  used  as 
animal  food  it  should  be  supplemented  with  dry  or  ground 
bone  that  will  furnish  the  necessary  mineral  matter  that  is 
lacking  in  the  milk. 

It  is  not  very  material  what  kind  of  green  food  is  fed. 
The  important  thing  is  to  give  the  fowls  all  they  will  eat. 
Alfalfa  and  clover  have  about  equal  feeding  value.  In 
winter,  alfalfa  and  clover  leaves  make  good  green  food. 
Kale  has  a  higher  percentage  of  water  than  green  alfalfa 
or  clover  or  vetch. 

The  table  gives  five  rations,  numbered  from  1  to  5.  No. 
1  is  rated  as  the  poorest  and  No.  5  the  best.  Corn  is  the 
only  grain  in  ration  1.  In  No.  2  wheat  is  fed  in  place  of 
corn,  but  in  other  respects  they  are  the  same.  Number  2 
is  placed  ahead  of  No.  1  because  it  has  slightly  more  pro- 
tein. Both  of  them  are  deficient  in  the  egg-making  material, 
protein.  Though  not  an  ideal  ration  by  any  means,  either 
1  or  2  would  be  an  improvement  on  many  rations  fed  on 
the  farms,  but  for  heavy  egg  production  neither  has  enough 
protein.  No.  3  is  better  than  Nos.  1  or  2  because  it  has  a 
variety  of  grains  and  a  little  more  protein.  Nos.  4  and  5 


METHODS  OF  FEEDING  259 

should  give  a  heavy  egg  yield  if  properly  fed.  They  are 
equal  in  protein,  but  No.  5  has  more  fat  than  4.  Corn, 
which  has  more  fat  than  wheat,  should  be  fed  more  liberally 
during  the  cold  weather  than  during  the  summer.  Ration 
5  therefore  should  be  a  better  winter  ration  than  4. 

How  to  Feed  the  Rations. — To  get  the  best  results  from 
rations  1  and  2  the  fowls  should  have  free  range  on  the 
farm.  These  rations  would  be  altogether  impracticable  for 
yarded  fowls.  A  light  feed  of  corn  or  wheat  should  be 
given  in  the  morning,  and  all  they  will  eat  up  at  night. 
If  the  fields  contain  bugs  and  worms  and  other  animal  food 
they  will  get  exercise  hunting  and  scratching.  There  will 
be  weed  seeds  and  waste  grains  of  different  kinds  at  differ- 
ent seasons  and  these  will  give  them  incentive  to  exercise, 
and  at  the  same  time  help  to  balance  the  ration.  Under 
such  conditions  it  would  be  possible  to  secure  a  fairly  good 
egg  yield  from  rations  1  and  2. 

But  where  other  grains  may  be  secured  it  would  be  a 
serious  mistake  to  confine  the  feeding  to  such  rations. 
These  two  rations  may  be  very  much  improved  by  the 
simple  method  of  keeping  a  hopper  of  dry  bran  accessible 
to  the  fowls  at  all  times.  They  would  be  further  improved 
by  adding  a  little  middlings  or  shorts  and  a  small  amount 
of  linseed  meal  to  the  bran  in  the  hopper.  This  would 
give  us  ration  No.  3.  Adding  the  bran,  middlings  and  lin- 
seed would  cut  down  the  amount  of  wheat  necessary.  This 
makes  a  very  good  ration  for  the  general  farm.  It  is  prac- 
tically a  balanced  ration,  at  any  rate  it  gives  the  hen  the 
opportunity  to  balance  her  ration ;  besides  it  requires  very 
little  labor  in  the  feeding.  If  cheaper  than  wheat,  corn 
may  be  substituted  for  wheat. 

Ration  No.  4  is  an  improvement  on  ration  3.  Ten 
pounds  of  corn  is  substituted  for  10  pounds  of  wheat.  Even 
if  corn  costs  a  few  cents  more  per  bushel  than  wheat,  it  will 


260  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

pay  to  feed  this  quantity.  Ration  5  is  an  improvement  on 
No.  4.  If  corn  is  as  cheap  or  cheaper  than  wheat  this 
ration  should  be  fed. 

The  Mash  Feeding. — If  it  is  desired  to  feed  a  dry  mash, 
the  bran,  middlings  and  linseed  should  be  put  together  in 
a  hopper  where  the  fowls  can  help  themselves  at  will.  The 
hopper  should  never  be  empty.  It  will  improve  the  dry 
mash  still  further  if  beef  scrap  be  added,  using  from  10  to 
15  pounds  in  100  pounds  mash.  This  will  induce  the  fowls 
to  eat  more  of  the  dry  mixture.  Where  milk  constitutes 
the  animal  food,  it  will  be  better  to  use  a  soft  mash,  mixing 
it  with  milk ;  also  keeping  milk  where  the  fowls  can  drink 
it  whenever  they  want  it.  If  no  milk  is  available  and  the 
mash  is  moistened  with  water,  a  hopper  of  beef  scrap  should 
be  supplied.  In  place  of  beef  scrap,  cut  bones  may  be  fed. 
There  is.  no  danger  in  the  fowls  eating  too  much  beef  scrap, 
assuming  of  course  that  its  quality  is  good.  The  only 
danger  is  in  permitting  the  hopper  to  get  empty,  for,  after 
being  without  animal  feed  for  a  few  days,  they  will  eat  too 
much  of  it  when  it  is  given  to  them  again. 

Five  pounds  beef  scrap  is  given  as  the  amount  necessary 
for  an  average  laying  hen  for  a  year.  This  amount  will 
vary  with  different  hens.  The  fowls  may  not  eat  2  or  3 
pounds,  or  they  may  eat  6  or  7,  but  it  is  safe  to  permit  each 
hen  to  eat  just  what  she  requires. 

Oregon  Station  Method. — Ration  No.  4  is  practically 
the  one  used  at  the  Oregon  Station.  The  mash  is  fed  moist. 
Sour  milk  or  buttermilk  is  used  in  mixing  it,  a  little  more 
milk  than  ground  grain  being  used. 

On  account  of  the  high  prices  of  corn  some  years,  less  of 
it  has  been  used  than  is  shown  in  table.  Unless  corn  gets 
down  to  about  the  price  of  wheat,  the  corn  that  is  fed  is 
ground  and  put  in  the  mash.  The  whole  grains  are  then 
wheat  and  oats. 


METHODS   OF   FEEDING  261 

The  mash  used  during  the  year  1912-13  was  as  follows 
by  weight: 

Bran    4  parts 

Middlings   1  part 

Ground  Barley   1  part 

Ground  Corn 1  part 

Linseed  Meal V<z  part 

Milk    8  parts 

Salt  is  added  at  the  rate  of  about  4  ounces  per  hen  per 
year.  The  proportion  of  bran  is  reduced  in  case  the  drop- 
pings show  a  watery  condition. 

The  mash  is  thoroughly  mixed  and  fed  as  soon  in  the 
morning  as  the  fowls  are  ready  to  eat  and  before  they  have 
had  anything  else.  The  amount  of  mash,  dry  material, 
averages  about  one  ounce  per  hen  per  day.  The  amount 
fed  does  not  vary  very  much  from  morning  to  morning,  but 
if  there  should  be  any  left  in  the  trough  for  more  than  an 
hour  after  feeding,  it  is  taken  away  and  next  day  less  is 
fed.  Then  the  amount  is  increased  as  their  appetite  for 
mash  increases,  until  they  are  getting  the  normal  amount. 
The  idea  is  to  get  them  to  eat  as  much  as  possible  in  about 
an  hour. 

The  Skill  of  the  Feeder  comes  in  largely  in  so  feeding 
that  the  fowls  will  eat  the  required  amount  of  the  mash 
of  ground  grains.  A  heavy  laying  hen  requires  a  full  crop 
of  grain  at  night,  but  there  should  not  be  any  whole  grain 
left  over  night  for  them  to  eat  in  the  morning,  otherwise 
enough  mash  will  not  be  eaten. 

Feeding  the  Oats. — About  ten  to  eleven  o'clock  a  feed 
of  oats  is  given.  This  is  thrown  in  the  litter,  just  enough 
to  keep  the  fowls  busy  scratching  for  an  hour  or  two. 

Feeding  the  Wheat. — In  the  afternoon  or  evening,  or 
between  two  and  three  o'clock  during  the  short  days,  be- 


262  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

tween  three  and  four  in  the  long  days,  whole  wheat  is  fed 
in  the  litter,  as  much  as  the  fowls  will  clean  up  before 
going  to  roost,  and  they  must  have  as  much  as  they  will 
eat,  and  no  more. 

Beef  Scrap  is  kept  in  a  hopper  all  the  time,  care  being 
taken  that  the  hopper  never  gets  empty  before  being  re- 
filled. In  addition,  fresh  cut  bone  is  fed  three  times  a  week, 
about  an  ounce  per  week  per  fowl. 

Oyster  Shell,  Charcoal  and  Grit  are  also  kept  in  sep- 
arate hoppers. 

Green  Food  is  before  the  fowls  all  the  time.  It  is  usually 
kale.  They  help  themselves  at  will.  A  head  of  kale  is  hung 
up  fresh  in  the  morning,  and  they  pick  at  it  whenever  they 
want  it.  This  is  supplemented  at  different  seasons  by  vetch, 
clover,  and  other  green  stuffs  that  grow  in  the  yards.  The 
fowls  are  changed  twice  a  year  to  clean  ground  and  green 
stuff  is  growing  in  the  yard  when  the  fowls  are  put  into  it. 

Cleanliness. — It  is  important  that  feeding  troughs  and 
drinking  vessels  be  kept  clean.  They  should  be  scalded 
frequently  with  boiling  water.  Do  not  throw  feed  on  dirty, 
filthy  ground. 

Changing  the  Ration. — Radical  changes  in  the  ration 
should  be  avoided.  The  feeder  should  first  map  out  his 
system  of  feeding  and  stay  by  it.  Remember  that  the  food 
is  not  everything,  and  when  the  fowls  are  not  laying  do  not 
conclude  that  it  is  the  fault  of  the  ration  unless  you  have 
definite  knowledge  that  it  is.  A  sudden  change  to  new 
food,  even  though  the  new  food  may  be  better  than  the  old, 
will  check  egg  production  for  a  considerable  time.  If 
changes  are  to  be  made,  it  is  better  to  make  them  gradually. 

Regularity. — Stated  times  should  be  given  to  the  feed- 
ing. A  " feast  and  a  starve"  will  not  satisfy  the  laying 
hen.  During  the  winter  the  hen  should  go  to  roost  with  a 
full  supper  to  sustain  her  through  the  long  night,  and  just 


METHODS  OF  FEEDING  263 

as  early  as  she  can  see  to  eat  in  the  morning  her  breakfast 
should  be  ready. 

Summing  Up. — Feed  wholesome  food;  feed  liberally; 
feed  regularly ;  feed  a  variety.  After  that,  the  only  secret 
in  feeding  is  to  feed  activity  into  the  hen. 

Cornell  Rations  for  Laying  Hens. — The  following  whole 
grain  mixture  is  fed  morning  and  afternoon  in  a  straw 
litter : 

By  weight  By  weight 

Winter  Summer 

60  Ibs.  wheat  60  Ibs.  wheat 

60  Ibs.  corn  60  Ibs.  corn 

30  Ibs.  oats  30  Ibs.  oats 
30  Ibs.  buckwheat 

The  following  mash  is  fed  dry  in  a  hopper  kept  open  dur- 
ing the  afternoon  only : 

By  Weight  By  Measure 

Winter  and  Summer  Winter  and  Summer 

60  Ibs.  corn  meal  57  qts.  corn  meal 

60  Ibs.  wheat  middlings  71  qts.  wheat  middlings 

30  Ibs.  wheat  bran  57  qts.  wheat  bran 

10  Ibs.  alfalfa  meal  20  qts..  alfalfa  meal 

10  Ibs.  oil  meal  8  qts.  oil  meal 

50  Ibs.  beef  scrap  43  qts.  beef  scrap 

1  Ib.     salt  y2  qt.     salt 

The  fowls  should  eat  about  one-half  as  much  mash  by 
weight  as  whole  grain.  Regulate  the  proportion  of  grain 
and  ground  feed  by  giving  a  light  feeding  of  grain  in  the 
morning  and  about  all  they  will  consume  at  the  afternoon 
feeding  (in  time  to  find  grain  before  dark).  In  the  case 
of  pullets  or  fowls  in  heavy  laying,  restrict  both  night  and 
morning  feeding  to  induce  heavy  eating  of  dry  mash,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  hens.  This  ration  should  be  supple- 
mented with  beets,  cabbage,  sprouted  oats,  green  clover  or 


264  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

other  succulent  food,  unless  running  on  grass-covered 
range.  Grit,  cracked  oyster  shell  and  charcoal  should  be 
accessible  at  all  times.  Green  food  should  not  be  fed  in  a 
frozen  condition.  All  feed  and  litter  used  should  be  strictly 
sweet,  clean  and  free  from  mustiness,  mould  or  decay. 

AVERAGE   COMPOSITION   OF   EGGS,   EGG  PRODUCTS  AND   CERTAIN 
OTHER  FOODS 


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11.9 

9.3 

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portion 

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13.4 

10.5 

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White 

86.2 

12.3 

0.2 

0.6 

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Yolk 

405 

15.7 

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7.1 

3.6 

2,525 

Cheese  as  pur- 

chased           .... 

34.2 

25.9 

33.7 

2.4 

3.8 

1,950 

Sirloin  steak  as 

purchased  ....      12.8 

54 

16.5 

16.1 

0.9 

985 

Sirloin  steak, 

edible  portion  

61.9 

18.9 

18.5 

1 

1,130 

Milk          

87 

3.3 

4 

5 

0.7 

325 

Oysters  in  shell 

as  purchased..      81.4 

16.1 

1.2 

0.2 

0.7 

0.4 

45 

Oysters,  edible 

portion  

86.9 

6.2 

1.2 

3.7 

2 

235 

Wheat  flour  

12 

11.4 

1 

75.1 

0.5 

1,650 

Potatoes,  as 

purchased   ....       20 

62.6 

1.8 

0.1 

14.7 

0.8 

310 

Potatoes,  edible 

78.3 

2.2 

0.1 

18.4 

I 

385 

METHODS  OF   FEEDING  265 

FEEDING  SMALL  CHICKENS 

Different  rations  may  be  successfully  fed  to  chicks.  The 
following  have  been  tried  and  are  recommended  by  the 
respective  stations: 

Oregon  Station  Ration 

Starting  food  Grain  mixture  Mash  mixture 

Bran  mixed  crumbly    1  Ib.  cracked  wheat      3  Ibs.  wheat  bran 
with  soft-boiled  egg;     1  Ib.  cracked  corn        lib.  wheat  middlings 
or      stale      bread  or  shorts 

squeezed  dry  out  of  1  Ib.  corn  meal 

milk.  Pinch  of  salt  added 

when  mixing 

FIRST  FEEDING  TIME    (24  TO  36  HOURS  OF  AGE) 

First  Week. — Starting  food  twice  a  day;  grain  mixture 
three  times  a  day  on  clean  sand;  after  two  or  three  days, 
grain  in  litter;  clean  water;  grit,  charcoal,  cracked  bone, 
in  separate  dishes ;  green  food. 

One  to  Three  Weeks. — One  feed  a  day  of  moist  mash, 
what  they  will  clean  up  in  an  hour ;  grain  mixture  in  litter 
two  or  three  times  a  day ;  grit,  charcoal,  cracked  bone,  and 
beef  scrap  in  hoppers ;  water ;  green  food. 

Three  to  Six  Weeks. — Morning  feed  of  moist  mash;  two 
feeds  of  grain  mixture ;  dry  middlings  in  a  hopper,  if  signs 
of  diarrhoea  appear ;  hopper-fed  beef  scrap ;  water,  grit, 
charcoal,  cracked  bone,  always  available;  milk  to  drink; 
green  food. 

After  Six  Weeks  or  On  Range. — Morning  meal  of  moist 
mash;  two  feeds  of  grain  mixture;  milk  (or  beef  scrap), 
charcoal,  grit,  bone,  water.  Oats  may  be  added  to  the  grain 
mixture,  if  desired;  the  proportion  of  wheat  may  be  in- 
creased or  decreased  as  it  becomes  lower  or  higher  in  price 
than  corn. 


266 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


Starting  food 
8  Ibs.  rolled  oats 
8  Ibs.  bread  crumbs 
2  Ibs.  sifted  beef 

scrap 

1  Ib.    bone  meal 
•Moistened    with 

skim  milk. 


Cornell  Ration 
Grain  mixture 
3  Ibs.  wheat 
2  Ibs.  corn 
1  Ib.     hulled  oats 

Fine  cracked  for 
the  youngest  chicks; 
whole  wheat  and 
hulled  oats  and  larger 
cracked  corn  for 
older  chicks ;  oats 
omitted  for  range 
chicks. 


Mash  mixture 
3  Ibs.  wheat  bran 
3  Ibs.  wheat  mid- 
dlings 

3  Ibs.  corn  meal 
3  Ibs.  beef  scrap 
1  Ib.  bone  meal 

Fed  dry  from 
first  meal ;  moist, 
and  dry  after 
five  days. 


FIRST   FEEDING   TIME    (36   TO  48   HOURS ) 

First  Five  Days. — Starting  food  five  times  a  day,  what 
they  will  eat  in  15  minutes;  grain  mixture  in  tray  of  dry 
mash  always  available;  fine  grit,  charcoal,  bone,  and  green 
food  scattered  over  other  food ;  water. 

After  Five  Days. — Grain  twice  a  day  in  litter;  scanty 
feed  of  moist  mash  three  times  a  day ;  as  chicks  grow  older, 
two  feeds  of  moist  mash,  then  only  one — at  noon;  water, 
grit,  charcoal,  cracked  bone,  always  at  hand,  and  hopper- 
fed  beef  scrap  if  desired ;  milk  to  drink.  Chicks  should  be 
hungry  once  a  day,  preferably  in  the  morning. 

On  Range. — Grain,  dry  mash,  beef  scrap,  grit,  shell,  bone, 
water,  always  at  hand.  One  meal  of  moist  mash  if  desired. 

Maine  Station  Method 


Starting  Food 
Ibs.  wheat  bran 
Ibs.  corn  meal 
Ibs.  screened  beef  scrap 
Ib.     alfalfa  meal 
Ib.     linseed  meal 


Grain  Mixture 
15  Ibs.  cracked  wheat 
10  Ibs.  pinhead  oatmeal 
15  Ibs.  fine  cracked  corn 

3  Ibs.  fine  cracked  peas 

2    Ibs.  broken  rice 

5  Ibs.  chick  grit 

2  Ibs.  charcoal 


METHODS  OF  FEEDING  267 

Mash  Mixture  No.  1  Mash  Mixture  No.  2 

2  Ibs.  wheat  bran  1  Ib.    wheat  bran 

3  Ibs.  corn  meal  2  Ibs.  corn  meal 

1     Ib.     Daisy  flour  (or  other      1  Ib.     wheat  middlings 

low-grade  flour)  1  Ib.    beef  scrap 

1     Ib.     screened  beef  scrap 
l/2  Ib.     linseed  meal 

FIRST  FEEDING  TIME    (36   TO  48   HOURS ) 

To  Three  Weeks. — Two  feeds  of  starting  food,  scalded 
and  mixed  with  rolled  oats,  two  parts  of  oats  to  six  of 
mixture ;  two  feeds  of  grain  mixture  in  light  litter ;  green 
food;  fine  grit,  charcoal,  cracked  bone,  and  clean  water 
always  before  the  chicks. 

Three  to  Six  Weeks. — Substitute  mash  mixture  No.  1 
(moist)  for  the  starting  food;  otherwise  as  above. 

On  Range. — (After  six  or  eight  weeks.)  Constant  sup- 
ply of  wheat,  cracked  corn,  beef  scrap,  cracked  bone,  oyster 
shell,  and  grit  in  separate  troughs  or  hoppers;  hopper- fed 
mash  mixture  No.  2. 

Ontario  Agricultural  College  Ration 

Starting  Food                Grain  Mixture  Mash  Mixture 

4  Ibs.  bread  crumbs       30  Ibs.  cracked  wheat  10  Ibs.  wheat  bran 

1  Ib.    hard  boiled         30  Ibs.  granulated  10  Ibs.  shorts 

egg                                   oatmeal  10  Ibs.  corn  meal 

Fed  dry               80  Ibs.  fine  cracked  3  Ibs.  animal 

corn.  meal 
10  Ibs.  small  grit 

FIRST  FEEDING  TIME   (24  TO  48  HOURS ) 

First  Two  Days. — Starting  food,  fed  five  times  a  day; 
lukewarm  water  to  drink. 

After  Two  Days. — Three  feeds  of  grain  mixture,  with 
one  of  bread  and  milk,  and  one  of  whole  wheat;  or  with 
two  feeds  of  moist  mash ;  fresh  boiled  liver  twice  a  week, 
if  obtainable — in  that  case,  animal  meal  omitted  from  the 


268  POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

mash ;  for  chicks  on  range  with  the  hens,  the  grain  mixture 
may  be  hopper-fed. 

After  Eight  Weeks. — Moist  mash  in  the  morning;  grain 
noon  and  night.  An  increase  in  the  proportion  of  animal 
food  will  hasten  the  development  of  the  chicks. 

FEEDING  AND  MANAGING  THE  GROWING  STOCK 

Food  requirements  vary  according  to  stage  of  maturity. 
The  fact  that  most  fowls  have  more  or  less  free  range  and 
are  able  to  find  much  natural  food,  which  helps  to  supply 
any  lack  of  nutrients  in  the  ration  fed  them,  in  other  words 
enables  them  to  balance  their  ration,  lessens  the  importance 
of  varying  the  feeding  according  to  special  needs  of  pro- 
duction. It  is  true,  nevertheless,  that  the  food  require- 
ments are  very  different  for  the  chick  from  the  shell  to  the 
end  of  the  brooding  period,  and  from  the  end  of  the  brood- 
ing period  to  maturity;  also  for  the  laying  hen  and  the 
developing  pullet  and  for  the  pullet  and  old  fowls.  The 
small  growing  chick  must  be  furnished  with  materials  for 
the  growth  of  frame  and  feathers;  the  laying  hen  for  the 
making  of  eggs;  the  market  fowl  for  the  production  of 
meat.  The  non-laying  moulting  hen  requires  foods  rich  in 
feather-making  material.  Young  chicks  eat  more  accord- 
ing to  size  than  mature  fowls.  During  the  growing  stage 
a  large  part  of  the  food  goes  to  produce  frame  or  bone  and 
feathers.  The  young  fowl,  or  chicken,  has  less  flesh  or  fat 
than  the  mature  fowl.  It  has  a  smaller  percentage  of 
edible  meat  than  the  mature  fowl.  The  reason  is,  the  food 
is  used  more  largely  for  frame  building.  The  fowl,  there- 
fore, that  is  building  a  frame  needs  more  frame  material 
than  one  whose  frame  is  already  built.  The  skeleton  of  the 
fowl  is  made  up  largely  of  mineral  matter — lime,  phos- 
phorus, iron,  etc. — which  are  all  grouped  together  under 
the  name  of  ash  in  the  ordinary  food  analysis. 


METHODS  OF  FEEDING  269 

The  food  requirement  varies,  therefore,  as  the  stage  of 
maturity  varies.  The  young  growing  fowl  requires  more 
ash  or  mineral  matter  than  the  mature  fowl  that  is  not  lay- 
ing. The  importance  of  this  fact  is  brought  home  to  the 
poultryman  who  keeps  his  fowls  in  enclosures  where  all 
their  requirements  must  be  met  from  the  supplied  food. 

After  the  chicks  have  passed  the  brooding  stage,  which 
is  usually  at  the  age  of  six  weeks  to  two  months,  depending 
upon  weather  conditions,  they  are  past  the  critical  period 
of  their  growth.  If  they  reach  this  stage  in  good  health 
and  vigor,  only  mistaken  feeding  and  management  will 
result  in  stunted  growth. 

Management  of  Growing  Stock. — While  chicks  may  be 
successfully  grown  under  more  or  less  restricted  conditions, 
the  best  practice  is  to  give  them  free  range.  There  are  two 
reasons  for  this.  First,  the  chickens  are  able  to  find  feed 
that  is  often  lacking  in  the  ration  when  kept  in  confinement ; 
and  second,  in  hunting  for  feed  they  get  exercise  that  they 
often  do  not  get  for  lack  of  incentive  when  kept  in  yards. 
The  importance  of  exercise  for  the  growing  stock  cannot 
be  over  estimated. 

Clean  Range. — The  range  should  be  clean.  It  should 
not  be  overstocked  with  chickens.  "Where  large  numbers 
are  kept  the  best  conditions  are  obtained  where  fowls  are 
kept  in  limited  numbers  in  colony  houses,  separated  widely 
so  that  they  have  plenty  of  clean  ground  to  range  over. 
There  are  many  advantages  of  free  range  for  growing 
chickens,  among  which  may  be  mentioned:  Less  danger 
from  contagious  diseases ;  greater  vigor  due  to  greater  ex- 
ercise; greater  profit  because  much  feed  otherwise  wasted 
is  found  in  the  field;  and  the  destruction  of  insects,  such 
as  grasshoppers,  which  may  be  an  important  item  in  cer- 
tain localities.  The  chickens  may  run  in  the  orchard,  in 
the  pasture  fields  with  the  cows  and  in  the  stubble  fields 


270  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

after  the  crops  are  harvested.  A  flock  of  five  hundred 
cockerels  were  kept  on  thirty  acres  of  wheat  stubble  by  the 
Oregon  Station  for  two  months  in  the  fall,  without  addi- 
tional food,  the  houses  being  moved  several  times. 

Clean  Yards. — Where  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  grow- 
ing chickens  in  yards  it  is  important  that  they  be  kept 
clean.  If  possible  a  crop  should  be  grown  on  the  yards 
every  year.  By  plowing  them  and  seeding  them  in  the  fall 
there  will  be  a  green  crop  in  the  spring  on  which  the 
chickens  may  run.  This  will  also  help  to  keep  the  ground 
in  a  sanitary  condition.  If  the  yard  is  small,  frequent 
spading  or  cultivation  will  lessen  the  danger  of  soil  contam- 
ination and  the  fowls  will  scratch  in  the  loose  soil  and  get 
exercise  in  that  way. 

Shade. — Another  essential  of  success  in  growing  chickens 
is  that  they  have  an  abundance  of  shade.  Fruit  trees  or 
other  trees  may  be  planted  in  the  yards,  or  part  of  the 
yards  may  be  planted  to  corn  or  sunflowers.  The  latter 
make  an  excellent  shade  and  at  the  same  time  furnish  con- 
siderable feed.  Where  the  shade  cannot  be  secured  in  this 
way,  artificial  shade  of  some  kind  should  be  provided,  such 
as  frames  covered  with  burlap  or  building  paper. 

Houses. — Ventilation  or  fresh  air  should  be  the  first  con- 
sideration in  housing  growing  chickens.  For  a  small  house 
one  side  should  be  entirely  open.  If  used  in  the  cold 
weather  of  spring  it  would  be  an  advantage  to  have  the 
opening  adjusted  so  as  to  prevent  chilling  during  the  cold 
nights  when  the  chicks  are  small  and  not  feathered  fully. 
A  house  7x10  feet  will  accommodate  one  hundred  grow- 
ing chicks  or  5  x  8-foot  house  accommodate  fifty  chicks. 
Before  they  approach  maturity  the  number  should  be  re- 
duced. The  perches  should  be  about  12  inches  apart. 

Size  of  Flock. — Where  kept  in  colony  houses  on  range, 
one  hundred  chicks  in  a  flock  should  be  about  the  maximum. 


METHODS  OF  FEEDING  271 

A  house  large  enough  to  accommodate  this  number  may  be 
pulled  by  a  team  of  horses.  Keeping  them  in  smaller  flocks 
than  fifty  will  offer  no  special  advantage  and  the  extra 
amount  of  labor  in  caring  for  them  in  smaller  numbers 
offsets  any  possible  advantage.  The  cost  of  the  house  will 
be  greater  in  proportion  to  number  for  the  smaller  house 
than  for  the  larger.  The  tendency  to  be  guarded  against 
is  crowding  too  many  together  in  a  small  house  or  coop. 
Great  losses  are  incurred  each  year  from  this  cause.  The 
size  of  flock  for  the  two  houses  mentioned  may  be  25% 
greater  at  the  start  and  in  two  or  three  months,  as  the 
cockerels  are  marketed,  the  number  will  be  reduced  to  the 
proper  size. 

Rations. — The  feeding  of  the  chick  up  to  the  end  of  the 
brooding  stage  has  already  been  discussed.  No  sudden 
change  should  be  made  in  the  ration  from  small  chicks  to 
growing  chicks.  One  of  the  great  secrets  in  feeding 
chickens  for  any  purpose  is  to  avoid  radical  or  sudden 
changes.  Free-range  chicks  may  safely  be  hopper-fed. 
Where  the  range  is  good,  hopper  feeding  or  part  hopper 
feeding  will  give  probably  as  good  results  as  any  other.  A 
satisfactory  method  is  to  keep  before  the  chickens  all  the 
time  a  hopper  of  dry  ground  grains  and  a  supply  of  animal 
food.  And  in  the  afternoon  or  evening  give  a  feed  of 
whole  grain,  wheat  or  cracked  corn,  or  a  mixture  of  both. 

The  following  are  suggestions  for  a  hopper  of  dry  mash : 

No.  1.    Bran  3  pounds.  Ground  corn  1  pound 

No.  2.    Bran  3        "  Ground  oats  1  pound 

No.  3.    Bran  3        "  Ground  barley  1  pound 

No.  4.    Bran  3       "  Coarse  middlings 

or  shorts  1  pound 

If  the  animal  food  is  beef  scrap  add  10  pounds  of  it  to 
100  pounds  of  the  mixture.  There  should  also  be  a  hopper 
or  box  of  broken  or  granulated  bone  and  another  of  grit. 


272  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

If  the  range  is  good  and  they  find  many  bugs  and  insects, 
10  pounds  of  beef  scrap  in  100  pounds  of  the  dry  mash 
will  be  sufficient,  especially  as  they  grow  older  and  range 
farther. 

If  milk  is  available,  that  should  be  substituted  for  the 
beef  scrap,  though  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  beef 
scrap  to  the  mash  makes  it  more  palatable,  otherwise  the 
fowls  may  refuse  to  eat  as  much  of  the  mash  as  may  be 
desirable.  The  milk  may  be  either  fresh  skim  milk  or  sour 
milk  or  buttermilk,  whichever  may  be  the  most  economical 
or  convenient  to  feed ;  either  sour  milk  or  buttermilk  being 
preferable. 

Moist  Mash. — A  daily  feed  of  moist  mash  in  place  of 
the  dry  mash  will  result  in  more  rapid  growth.  The  real 
values,  however,  of  the  two  methods  have  not  been  very 
clearly  demonstrated.  The  difference  will  depend  some- 
what upon  the  character  of  the  range  and  the  amount  and 
kind  of  insect  food  available.  Either  method,  however, 
will  give  good  results  and  whether  one  or  the  other  method 
is  used  may  safely  be  left  to  the  convenience  of  the  feeder. 
It  will  be  better  in  feeding  pullets  to  follow  the  method 
that  will  be  followed  in  feeding  them  as  layers.  Changing 
from  one  method  to  the  other  at  the  beginning  of  the  lay- 
ing season  will  interfere  with  the  laying  for  some  time  and 
a  loss  result.  If  necessary  to  make  a  change,  it  should  be 
made  gradually.  The  moist  mash  should  be  fed  in  the  morn- 
ing, preferably,  and  enough  fed  to  last  them  about  an 
hour.  It  may  be  made  of  the  same  grains  as  the  dry  mash, 
mixed,  if  possible,  with  milk  or  buttermilk. 

Culling. — If  the  pullets  have  come  from  good  breeding 
stock  and  have  been  properly  hatched  and  brooded  little 
culling  will  be  necessary,  but  it  would  hardly  be  possible 
to  find  a  flock  in  which  some  culling  will  not  be  desirable. 
It  has  been  seen  how  important  a  thing  is  vigor,  and  though 


METHODS   OF   FEEDING  273 

the  lack  of  vigor  may  not  be  always  apparent  in  the  young 
stock,  it  is  always  apparent  in  some  and  when  found  the 
poultryman  should  cull  rigorously.  "Where  there  is  a  con- 
siderable percentage  of  culls  and  this  persists  under  best 
methods  of  hatching  and  brooding,  the  breeding  stock  should 
be  changed.  A  change  of  males  may  be  all  that  is  neces- 
sary. 

Poultrymen  who  use  artificial  hatching  and  rearing 
should  set  a  hen  or  two  at  the  time  incubators  are  set  and 
with  the  same  kind  of  eggs  and  compare  the  results  with 
those  in  the  incubator.  This  will  give  a  check  on  the  breed- 
ing stock,  as  well  as  on  the  incubator.  If  the  chicks  under 
both  methods  show  equally  good  growth  and  low  mortality 
the  poultryman  should  be  satisfied  that  both  the  breeding 
stock  and  the  incubation  are  all  right.  If,  however,  the 
chicks  show  poor  results  both  in  mortality  and  rate  of 
growth,  the  evidence  would  point  to  the  breeding  stock  as 
lacking  in  vigor ;  but  if  the  hen-hatched  chicks  show  good 
vigor  and  the  incubator  chicks  poor  vigor,  the  trouble  is 
in  the  incubator  or  brooder.  To  determine  whether  the 
trouble  is  in  the  incubator  or  brooder,  some  of  the  in- 
cubator chicks  should  be  brooded  by  hens.  If  the  chicks 
show  good  vigor  brooded  under  hens  and  poor  vigor  in 
brooders,  the  fault  is  in  the  brooding,  not  in  the  incubation. 

Under  best  conditions,  however,  some  culling  will  be 
found  to  be  necessary.  If  at  the  age  of  two  months  some 
chicks  have  failed  to  make  growth  the  poultryman  will  be 
money  in  the  pocket  if  Dr.  Hatchet  is  given  a  job.  They 
are  taking  up  room,  eating  food  that  will  bring  no  return 
and  are  more  or  less  of  a  menace  to  the  rest  of  the  flock. 

The  Cockerels. — rA  mistake  is  often  made  in  retaining 
the  cockerels  too  long.  If  they  are  hatched  early  in  the 
season  they  will  come  to  broiler  maturity  at  a  time  when 
prices  are  at  their  highest  for  broilers.  That  is  the  time  to 


274  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

sell  them,  usually.  A  broiler  weighing  a  pound  and  a  half 
will  often  bring  as  much  money  in  April,  May  or  June  as 
a  three  or  four  pound  cockerel  in  the  fall.  As  weight  is 
being  put  on  the  cockerel  during  the  summer  the  price  is 
falling,  and  the  price  often  falls  faster  than  the  weight 
increases.  By  keeping  the  cockerels  till  the  fall,  therefore, 
or  until  they  get  their  growth,  the  farmer  or  poultry  man 
will  very  often  get  nothing  for  the  feed  he  has  fed  them. 

There  are,  of  course,  exceptions  to  this  rule.  A  farmer 
may  have  a  bunch  of  cockerels  on  free  range  where  the 
food  costs  little  or  nothing.  "Where  stubble  fields  are  avail- 
able till  late  in  the  fall  and  in  sections  where  chickens  can 
range  out  on  stubble  fields  till  near  Christmas,  it  may  pay 
to  keep  the  cockerels  over  or  until  the  time  the  prices  have 
risen.  Again,  it  may  be  that  a  farmer  can  caponize  his 
cockerels  in  the  summer  and  by  keeping  them  till  January 
or  February,  sell  them  at  a  good  price  for  roasters. 

Feeding  Broilers. — If  the  chickens  have  been  hatched 
early  and  it  is  desired  to  market  the  cockerels  when  the 
broiler  market  is  good,  the  cockerels  should  be  separated 
from  the  pullets  when  they  weigh  about  a  pound  and  given 
special  feeding.  In  place  of  feeding  the  ground  grain  dry, 
as  may  be  done  with  the  growing  stock,  it  should  be  mixed 
with  sour  milk  or  buttermilk.  When  feeding  for  flesh 
rather  than  for  growth  the  proportion  of  bran  should  be 
reduced.  For  fattening  broilers  equal  parts  of  bran  and 
ground  grain  should  be  used,  reducing  the  proportion  of 
bran  during  the  last  week  to  one-half  part.  As  much  of 
the  mixture  as  they  will  clean  up  in  an  hour  should  be 
given  early  in  the  morning.  In  the  afternoon  or  evening 
whole  grain  should  be  fed.  In  other  respects  the  same 
feeds  should  be  given  as  for  growing  stock  if  the  broilers 
have  free  range.  If  crate-fattened,  they  should  be  given 
soft  feed  exclusively  for  eight  or  ten  days  before  market- 


METHODS   OF   FEEDING 


275 


ing,  feeding  three  times  a  day.  Enough  milk  should  be 
used  to  make  the  mash  into  a  thin  gruel  and  no  water  given 
to  drink.  No  beef  scrap  or  green  feed  will  then  be  needed. 

FATTENING  OR  FLESHENING  FOWLS 

Special  feeding  before 
marketing  greatly  im- 
proves the  quality  of 
poultry.  Unf attened 
poultry  respond  very 
readily  to  feeding.  The 
period  of  fattening  is 
about  two  weeks.  In  the 
case  of  beef  animals  it 
requires  months  of  feed- 
ing to  put  them  in  condi- 
tion for  the  best  mar- 
kets. The  same  evolu- 
tion is  accomplished  for 
the  fowl  in  two  weeks. 

In  spite  of  the  ease 
and  rapidity  with  which 
the  finishing  or  fleshen- 
ing  process  is  done,  the 
great  bulk  of  the  poultry 
that  goes  to  market 
lacks  this  finish.  In  re- 
cent years  the  fattening  of  farm  poultry  has  been  under- 
taken by  the  meat  packers.  The  fowls  are  collected  in  large 
numbers  and  sent  to  feeding  stations  where,  under  proper 
conditions,  great  improvement  is  made  in  the  quality  of  the 
chickens. 

The  objects  of  fattening  may  be  stated  to  be,  first,  to  add 
additional  weight,  and,  second,  to  improve  the  quality  of 


A     GOOD     ROASTER 

8  1-3  months  old,  weighing  1024  Ibs.    Fed 
on   farm  of  Geo.   H.   Hyslop,   Deslar,  Ohio. 


276  POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

the  flesh.  The  profit  in  feeding  comes  as  much  from  the 
improved  quality  of  the  meat  as  from  the  additional  flesh 
put  on.  Fattening  is  especially  desirable  for  young 
cockerels  that  have  had  free  range  on  the  farm.  They 
have  good  frame  and  constitution,  and  when  confined  and 
properly  fed  put  on  flesh  rapidly  and  economically.  The 
farmer  might  well  secure  the  benefit  of  the  extra  weight 
and  the  consumer  the  extra  quality.  The  skillful  feeder 
feeds  for  both  quality  and  weight.  The  fowl  that  is  simply 
fat  has  the  fat  distributed  over  the  intestines  and  under 
the  skin  and  when  cooked  this  fat  will  run  out  into  the  pan. 
With  the  fowl  properly  fattened  the  fat  will  be  distributed 
in  small  globules  throughout  the  fibres  of  the  flesh  and  when 
cooked  the  flavor  of  the  meat  will  be  retained  and  the  meat 
will  be  more  tender.  The  consumers  in  purchasing  fowls 
at  so  much  per  pound  are  paying  for  bones  as  well  as  meat, 
and  they  prefer  the  fattened  fowl  at  a  higher  price  because 
they  get  more  edible  meat  in  each  pound  purchased.  Proper 
fattening  increases  the  proportion  of  meat  to  bones,  and 
this  is  the  special  benefit  of  fattening. 

Methods  of  Fattening. — There  are  three  methods  fol- 
lowed in  fattening.  First,  pen  fattening;  the  fowls  are 
confined  in  small  pens  or  yards.  Second,  crate  fattening; 
by  this  method  specially  made  crates  or  feeding  batteries 
are  used.  Third,  cramming ;  in  the  last  stage  of  the  fatten- 
ing period  a  cramming  machine  is  used. 

The  first  method  is  largely  used  on  the  farm  where  the 
business  does  not  receive  special  attention.  The  second 
method  is  used  at  the  large  packing-house  stations  and  by 
others  making  a  special  business  of  marketing  fowls  of 
extra  quality.  The  cramming  method  is  not  very  generally 
used  in  this  country.  In  England  and  France  great  num- 
bers of  chickens  are  "crammed." 

In  egg  production  one  of  the  essential  factors  is  exercise 


METHODS  OF  FEEDING 


277 


for  the  hen,  while  non-exercise  is  just  as  essential  in  fat- 
tening. The  good  laying  hen  must  have  vigor  and  this  is 
associated  with  hard  muscles.  Proper  fattening  means  a 
softening  of  the 
muscles  to  pro- 
duce a  flesh  that 
when  cooked  is 
tender,  and  this 
is  produced  only 
by  restricting  or 
preventing  exer- 
cise. In  fatten- 
ing it  is  not  the 
object  to  secure 
vigor  in  the 
chicken ;  rather 
it  is  the  initial 
process  leading 

to  loss  of  vigor.          FEEDING  BATTERY  FOR  FATTENING 
The    fattening 

process  could  not  continue  long  beyond  the  two  weeks  fat- 
tening period  without  the  fowl  showing  decided  loss  in 
vigor. 

Another  essential  in  fattening  is  that  soft  foods  must  be 
fed  altogether.  Lack  of  exercise  interferes  with  the  proper 
digestion  of  whole  or  hard  grains.  The  grain  is  ground 
finely  and  mixed  with  water  or  milk  to  about  the  con- 
sistency of  cream,  or  thin  enough  so  that  it  will  drip  from 
a  spoon.  No  water  is  given  to  drink. 

Cost  of  Fattening.* — The  cost  of  feed  consumed  by 
498,681  chickens  at  four  large  packing-houses  in  the  middle 
"West  in  1912  was  as  follows : 


'Bulletin  21,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


278  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

Cost  of  feed  Cost  of  labor 

per  per 

pound  gain  pound  gain 

Packing  house  A   8.74  cents  1.63  cents 

Packing  house  B    7.70  cents  1.99  cents 

Packing  house  C    6.61  cents  1.37  cents 

Packing  house  D    9.95  cents  1.59  cents 

The  cost  was  figured  on  the  following  prices  of  feed : 

Corn  meal   $1.39  to  $1.74  per  100  pounds 

Low  grade  wheat  flour 1.38  to     1.52         "  " 

Shorts 1.18  to     1.25         "  " 

Buttermilk     1  to  2  cents  a  gallon 

Fattening  Rations. — The  best  results  were  secured  by 
feeding  either  of  the  three  following  rations : 

1.  3  parts  cormneal.  2  parts  low  grade  wheat  flour;  1  part 

shorts. 

2.  3  parts  cornmeal,  2  parts  low  grade  wheat  flour. 

3.  5  parts  cornmeal,  3  parts  low  grade  wheat  flour,  1  part 

shorts,  and  5  per  cent  tallow. 

Oatmeal  produced  better  gains  than  low  grade  wheat 
flour,  but  was  less  profitable  on  account  of  its  higher  price. 

Buttermilk  is  used  by  the  packing-houses  in  mixing  the 
food.  No  other  animal  food  is  given.  Buttermilk  or  sour 
milk  is  preferred  to  sweet  milk.  The  milk  or  buttermilk 
bleaches  or  whitens  the  flesh.  All  milk-fed  chickens  have 
light-colored  flesh.  This  whitening  may  be  partly  offset 
by  feeding  yellow  corn  meal.  If  milk  is  not  used,  beef  scrap 
or  other  animal  food  must  be  fed. 

The  feeder  must  use  the  foods  that  are  reasonable  in 
price.  No  one  grain  is  essential.  In  most  sections  of  the 
United  States  corn  will  be  most  largely  fed  because  of  its 
cheapness.  In  the  fattening  districts  of  England  oats  are 
considered  the  most  satisfactory.  In  France  buckwheat 
and  barley  are  largely  used.  Where  oats  that  are  good  and 


280  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

plump  and  cheaper  than  other  grains  can  be  secured,  they 
should  form  the  large  part  of  the  ration.  They  must,  how- 
ever, be  specially  ground  to  cut  up  the  hull  in  small 
particles.  If  corn  and  oats  cost  the  same  pound  for  pound, 
then  the  ration  may  be  made  up  of  half  of  each  by  weight. 
If  corn  is  not  available,  a  little  middlings  or  shorts,  or 
low-grade  wheat  flour,  may  be  mixed  with  the  oats.  The 
famous  Sussex  fat  chickens  in  England  are  produced  on  a 
ration  of  oats.  The  important  thing,  however,  is  that  the 
oats  be  heavy  and  finely  ground. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

METHODS   OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS 

Structure  of  the  Egg. — The  principal  parts  of  the  egg 
are,  in  the  order  of  their  growth,  the  yolk,  the  albumin  or 
white,  and  the  shell.  The  yolk  is  built  up  carefully  layer 
upon  layer  and  requires  about  two  weeks  to  develop  from 
the  size  of  a  pea  to  the  full-sized  yolk.  It  contains  the 
blastoderm  or  germ  cell,  which  may  be  seen  as  a  white  speck 
one-eighth  inch  in  diameter  on  its  upper  surface.  This 
speck  enlarges  when  the  egg  is  kept  in  a  warm  room  or  in 
a  high  temperature.  The  blastoderm,  as  Lillie  says,  "is 
the  living  part  of  the  egg  from  which  the  chick  embryo  and 
all  its  parts  are  derived."  There  is  more  or  less  develop- 
ment of  the  embryo  of  a  fertile  egg  before  it  is  laid,  due 
to  the  body  temperature  of  the  hen.  Should  the  egg  be 
retained  in  the  uterus,  as  sometimes  happens,  a  day  or 
two  before  being  laid  the  development  may  proceed  so  far 
that  the  egg  will  be  unfit  for  eating.  Retarded  laying, 
however,  seldom  happens.  The  yolk  furnishes  the  embryo 
a  large  part  of  its  nutriment,  and  the  unassimilated  part 
of  the  yolk  furnishes  the  chick  food  for  several  days  after 
hatching. 

The  Albumin  in  different  layers  surrounds  the  yolk. 
Close  to  the  yolk  there  is  a  dense  layer  which  forms  at  each 
end  of  the  egg  two  spirally  twisted  cords.  These  are  called 
the  chalazae,  the  apparent  function  of  which  is  to  hold  the 
yolk  in  place.  The  albumin  is  a  protection  for  the  germ  or 
blastoderm.  It  keeps  it  from  coming  in  contact  with  the 
shell  and  lessens  the  force  or  effect  of  jarring.  Another 
function  of  the  albumin  is  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  bac- 

281 


282  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

teria  to  the  yolk  or  germ  cell.  The  oviduct  appears  to  be 
germ-proof  and  the  albumin  to  have  certain  bactericidal 
properties. 

The  Yolk  has  a  lower  specific  gravity  than  the  albumin 
and  will  be  found  floating  near  the  side  of  the  egg  upper- 
most, with  the  germ  cell  on  the  upper  side  of  the  yolk. 
This  brings  the  germ  cell  always  near  the  source  of  heat 
during  incubation.  Should  the  egg  remain  long  in  one 


PARTS  OF  A  FRESH  EGG 

position  without  turning,  the  albumin  becomes  thinner  and 
the  yolk  will  adhere  to  the  shell.  This  is  fatal  to  the 
embryo. 

There  are  two  layers  of  shell  membrane,  the  inner  and 
outer.  The  inner  layer  lies  next  to  the  albumin  and  the 
thicker  outer  one  next  to  the  shell.  After  being  laid,  the 
egg  contents  contract,  and  at  the  large  end  the  inner  layer 
draws  away  from  the  outer,  causing  the  air  space. 

The  Shell,  which  forms  about  11%  of  the  weight  of  the 
egg,  plays  an  important  part  in  the  embryonic  develop- 
ment of  the  chick.  Until  recently  the  shell  was  supposed 


METHODS  OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS  283 

to  be  merely  a  protective  device,  but  it  is  now  known  that 
the  developing  chick  draws  upon  the  shell  for  a  large  part 
of  the  lime  necessary  for  its  proper  growth.  The  shell  is 
porous  or  permeable  to  gases ;  this  permits  evaporation  of 
the  water  of  the  egg  and  also  permits  entrance  of  oxygen 
necessary  for  the  development  of  the  embryo. 

How  Long  Should  Laying  Hens  Be  Kept. — The  pro- 
ductive life  of  the  hen  is  short  compared  with  that  of 
domestic  animals.  It  is  apparently  a  natural  characteristic 
of  the  hen  to  lay  more  eggs  in  her  first  laying  year  than 
in  the  second,  and  in  each  succeeding  year  a  smaller  num- 
ber. The  results  of  experiments  by  the  writer  at  the  Utah 
Station  showed  average  pen  results  from  Leghorns  in  the 
first  year  of  164  eggs,  and  in  the  second  126  per  hen.  In 
exceptional  individual  cases  more  eggs  were  laid  the  second 
year  than  the  first.  For  instance,  one  hen  laid  201  the 
first  year  and  241  the  second.  Forty-one  hens  of  different 
breeds  averaged  178  eggs  the  first  year  and  125  the  second, 
or  40%  more  the  first  than  the  second  year. 

At  the  Oregon  Station  later  results  were  secured  as 
follows :  Fifty  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  laid  160  eggs  the  first 
year,  and  105  the  second  year,  and  50  White  Leghorns  and 
crosses,  153  eggs  the  first  year,  and  130  the  second  year. 
In  these  experiments  the  laying  year  began  November  1. 
Out  of  the  100  hens,  17  laid  more  eggs  the  second  year  than 
the  first. 

Other  records  showed,  what  might  be  expected,  that 
where  the  conditions  for  egg  production  were  more  favor- 
able during  the  second  year  than  the  first,  a  better  egg 
yield  was  secured  during  the  second  year.  Again,  where 
the  period  of  maturity  varied,  or  where  the  laying  year 
began  in  the  spring,  the  second  year  records  were  better 
than  the  first.  The  moulting  period  did  not  vary,  making 
the  first  laying  year  short 


284  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  END  OF  INCUBATION 
The  prison  walls  being  broken  down. 

Where  maturity  is  reached  in  the  fall  and  laying  begins 
then,  the  average  flock  results  invariably  showed  that  the 
first  year  is  the  most  productive  or  profitable,  and  that 
there  is  a  gradual  decrease  each  succeeding  year. 

This  means  that  the  hens  must  be  killed  off  at  the  end  of 
their  second  laying  year  and  their  places  taken  by  pullets. 
Some  poultry-keepers  practice  renewing  the  flock  of  layers 
every  year  •  others  keep  them  three  years. 

Renewal  of  the  Flock. — The  point  is  that  the  frequent 
renewal  of  the  flock  constitutes  a  large  and  costly  part  of 
the  business  of  egg  production.  If  the  productive  life  of 
the  hen  could  be  lengthened  to  say  five  years  instead  of 


THE  YOUNG  GRADUATE 
It  has  broken  its  way  out  into  the  world — the  fruits  of  successful  incubation. 


METHODS   OF   HATCHING  CHICKENS  285 

two  years,  one  of  the  most  troublesome  as  well  as  expensive 
features  of  poultry-raising  would  be  very  much  simplified. 
The  cost  of  incubation,  or  the  hatching  and  raising  of  the 
pullet,  is  a  no  small  initial  charge  on  the  cost  of  every  dozen 
of  eggs  produced.  This  initial  cost  would  be  less  significant 
were  it  possible  to  eliminate  a  large  part  of  the  losses 
usually  incurred  in  the  hatching  and  rearing  of  the  chicks. 

In  renewing  the  flock  the  utmost  care  must  be  taken  in 
hatching  and  rearing  to  preserve  in  the  new  flock  the 
vitality  of  the  old.  If  the  health  and  vitality  of  the  stock 
may  be  injured  by  improper  methods  of  incubation  and 
brooding,  and  these  methods  are  persisted  in  year  after 
year,  disastrous  results  will  soon  be  brought  about  by  the 
very  frequency  with  which  the  flock  is  renewed.  Decrease 
in  egg  production,  which  we  may  seek  to  overcome  by  fre- 
quently renewing  the  flock,  will  as  certainly  result  from  a 
gradual  lowering  of  vitality  as  from  keeping  the  hens  till 
they  have  ' '  lost  their  teeth. "  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  writer 
that  there  are  harder  problems  to  solve,  and  greater  diffi- 
culty to  be  encountered  by  the  poultryman,  in  incubation 
and  brooding,  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  poultry 
business. 

Eggs  for  Hatching  Must  Be  Produced  by  Hens  of  Good 
Vitality. — Successful  rearing  of  chickens  depends  very 
largely  on  following  closely  nature's  way.  If  we  study  the 
way  of  the  hen  that  hatches  every  egg  in  the  fence  corner, 
we  shall  find  this  fact :  The  hen  that  laid  the  eggs  was  not 
confined  in  close  yards ;  she  had  the  liberty  of  the  fields.  This 
guaranteed  good  health  and  vigor.  Eggs  laid  by  such  hens 
will  hatch  better  than  those  from  hens  cooped  up  under 
artificial  conditions.  Health  and  vitality  in  the  hen  are  trans- 
mitted to  the  chick.  Eggs  that  hatch  well  come  from  hens 
that  have  good  vitality.  Chicks  that  live  well  come  from 
eggs  laid  by  hens  of  good  vitality.  The  method  of  hatch- 


286  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

ing  or  the  method  of  brooding  is  not  always  responsible 
for  eggs  failing  to  hatch  and  for  chicks  failing  to  live  or 
grow  well.  The  parent  stock,  or  the  condition  under  which 
the  parent  stock  is  kept,  is  sometimes  to  blame. 

Breeding  stock,  therefore,  should  be  carefully  selected, 
only  those  individuals  being  retained  that  are  up  to  a  cer- 
tain standard  of  shape,  size  and  vigor. 

It  is  not  claimed  here  that  lack  of  vigor  in  the  parents 
will  inevitably  be  transmitted  to  the  offspring.  Parents 
of  apparently  weak  constitution  may  breed  vigorous  off- 
spring. A  chicken  may  have  been  injured  in  its  rearing 
and  show  weakness,  without,  however,  impairing  its  value 
as  a  breeder  of  strong,  healthy  stock;  but  the  poultryman 
cannot  afford  to  retain  in  his  flock  fowls  showing  con- 
stitutional weakness.  Lack  of  vigor  in  the  parent  stock 
may  not  always  show  in  the  offspring,  but  it  will  invariably 
show  itself  in  smaller  egg  production  and  in  eggs  that  do 
not  hatch  a  high  percentage  of  chicks.  There  may  not  be 
constitutional  weakness  in  the  fowls  that  lay  the  eggs,  but 
if  there  is  lack  of  vigor  there  will  be  correspondingly  few 
eggs  that  are  fertile  and  fewer  of  the  fertile  eggs  that 
hatch. 

Methods  of  Hatching  Sometimes  Responsible  for  Poor 
Hatches  and  for  Lack  of  Vigor  in  the  Chicks. — Do  not 
always  blame  the  parent  stock  for  poor  hatches  and  for 
poor  chicks.  At  the  Oregon  Station  one  method  of  hatch- 
ing gave  an  average  of  78.8  chicks  from  a  hundred  eggs 
set,  while  another  method  gave  60.6  chicks.  When  brooded 
in  artificial  brooders,  90%  of  the  chicks  hatched  by  the 
first  method  were  alive  at  the  end  of  four  weeks,  while 
only  67%  of  the  others  were  alive.  When  brooded  under 
hens,  about  98%  of  those  hatched  by  the  first  method  were 
alive  at  the  end  of  four  weeks,  and  only  51%  of  the  others. 

While  it  is  true,    therefore,    that    lack  of  vigor  in  the 


METHODS  OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS  287 

parent  stock  may  sometimes  account  for  poor  hatches  and 
low  vitality  in  the  chicks  that  hatch,  it  is  also  true  that 
poor  methods  of  incubation  may  produce  the  same  results. 

Methods  of  Brooding  are  sometimes  faulty  and  result 
in  a  high  death-rate  among  the  chicks  and  in  impaired 
vitality  in  those  that  grow  to  maturity. 

Feeding  and  General  Care  of  the  chicks  is  an  important 
part  of  this  subject.  It  is  true  that  chicks  of  good  vitality 
will  stand  a  good  deal  of  abuse  in  the  rearing;  it  is  true 
that  expensive  foods  and  much  labor  in  feeding  are  not 
necessary  to  get  the  best  results;  but  at  the  same  time,  to 
get  the  rapid  growth  required  of  the  chicks,  they  must 
have  proper  foods. 

With  the  above  outline  as  a  guide,  let  us  now  discuss 
some  of  these  points  more  in  detail.  Omitting  further 
reference  to  the  first  topic,  let  us  consider  different  methods 
of  hatching. 

NATURAL   VERSUS  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 

There  are  two  ways  or  methods  of  hatching  chickens, 
namely,  natural  and  artificial ;  in  other  words,  hen-hatching 
and  incubator-hatching.  On  the  general  farms  the  larger 
part  of  the  hatching  and  brooding  is  done  by  hens,  while 
a  majority  of  the  special  poultry  farms  use  incubators  and 
brooders. 

There  are  advantages  and  disadvantages  in  each.  The 
poultry-raiser  must  choose  the  method  that  best  suits  his 
individual  conditions.  Each  method  has  its  place,  but 
there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  how  far  artificial 
methods  should  supersede  the  natural.  On  the  general 
farm  where  fifty  or  a  hundred  fowls  are  kept  the  natural 
method  is  undoubtedly  the  most  satisfactory,  first  because 
of  the  limited  number  of  chicks  to  be  hatched  to  renew  the 


288  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

flock ;  second,  because  farmers,  as  a  rule,  have  not  the  time 
to  give  the  necessary  care  to  the  incubator  and  brooder; 
third,  because  the  cost  of  equipment  is  much  less;  and 
fourth,  that  under  farm  conditions  better  chicks  will  be 
reared  by  the  natural  way. 

The  advantages  of  the  artificial  method  are  mainly  ap- 
parent on  the  large  special  farms.  Incubators  are  a  neces- 
sity on  these  farms  first,  because  non-sitting  breeds  are 
kept  on  many  of  them;  second,  because  not  enough  sitters 
can  be  secured  early  in  the  season  for  hatching  chicks  to 
supply  the  market  with  early  spring  broilers;  third,  it  is 
claimed  that  the  incubator  lessens  the  labor  where  large 
numbers  are  hatched.  A  fourth,  and  important  advantage, 
is  that  the  use  of  incubators  makes  it  possible  to  keep  the 
chicks  free  from  lice  and  mites  and  certain  diseases. 

There  are,  however,  large  poultry  farms,  where  egg  pro- 
duction is  the  chief  object,  that  use  the  natural  method, 
noticeably  that  of  the  Little  Compton  district  of  Rhode 
Island.  Artificial  methods  would  be  more  generally  used 
than  they  are  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  there  are 
problems  in  artificial  incubation  and  brooding  that  are  not 
encountered  in  natural  incubation  and  brooding.  What- 
ever may  be  the  real  merits  of  the  two  ways  of  hatching, 
it  is  certain  that  the  incubator  has  become  a  considerable 
factor  in  the  poultry  industry,  and  it  may  be  that  with 
improvements  in  manufacture  and  methods  of  operating 
the  machine  it  may  in  the  future  still  further  supersede 
the  hen. 

Comparisons  of  the  Two  Methods. — Reports  of  experi- 
ments on  the  relative  efficiency  of  the  hen  and  incubator, 
are  somewhat  contradictory.  In  tests  at  the  Oregon  Station 
that  extended  from  April  to  July  comparative  results  were 
secured.  These  experiments  were  made  in  the  spring  and 
summer  months,  and  it  has  been  the  experience  at  this  sta- 


METHODS  OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS  289 

tion  that  incubator  chicks  hatched  earlier  in  the  season,  or 
in  the  colder  months,  have  greater  thrift.  Chickens  hatched 
by  incubators  in  January,  February  and  March  are  more 
easily  reared  than  those  hatched  later.  It  is  not  assumed 
that  the  results  secured  were  the  best  that  may  be  obtained. 
It  was  an  incubation  experiment.  Chicks  hatched  in  differ- 
ent ways  were  put  under  like  conditions  of  brooding,  and 
even  though  the  brooding  might  not  have  been  the  best, 
the  value  of  the  incubation  comparison  should  not  thereby 
be  lessened.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  results : 

1.  From  879  eggs  set,  incubators  hatched  533  chicks,  or 
60.6%. 

2.  From  279  eggs  set,  hens  hatched  219  chicks,  or  78.8%. 

3.  Eliminating  eggs  broken  in  nests,  the  hen  hatched 
88.2%  of  eggs  set. 

4.  The  incubators  hatched  78.5%  of  "fertile"  eggs,  and 
the  hens  hatched  96.5%. 

5.  Eggs  incubated  artificially  tested  22.7%  as  infertile, 
while  those  incubated  by  hens  tested  out  11.8%. 

6.  The  incubator's  showed  16.6%  of  chicks  "dead  in  the 
shell,"  and  the  hens  2.8%. 

7.  Chicks  hatched  under    hens    weighed  heavier  than 
chicks  hatched  in  incubators. 

8.  The    mortality    of    hen-hatched    chicks    brooded    in 
brooders  was  10.8%   in  four    weeks,    and    of    incubator- 
hatched  chicks  33.5%. 

9.  The  mortality  of  hen-hatched  chicks  brooded  under 
hens  was  2.2%,  and  of  incubator  chicks  49.2%. 

10.  In  other  tests  the  mortality  was  46.5%  for  incubator 
chicks  brooded  by  hens  and  58.4%  brooded  in  brooders. 

11.  Hen-hatched   chicks   made   greater   gain    in   weight 
than  incubator  chicks,  whether  brooded  by  hens  or  brooders. 

At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  experiments  gave 
the  following  results:    "Nine  hundred  and  fifty-eight  eggs 


290  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

were  set  in  the  machines  and  436  chicks  were  hatched,  or 
45.5%  of  the  eggs  set.  Three  hundred  and  thirty-five  were 
set  under  hens  and  196  chicks  were  hatched,  or  58.5%  of 
the  eggs  set.  As  the  same  hens'  eggs  were  used  in  each 
method,  the  hen  has  the  advantage,  and  had  she  not  been  in 
cramped  quarters  for  a  portion  of  the  hatches,  her  hatches 
would  have  been  larger."  (Ontario  Agricultural  College, 
Bulletin  163.) 

Prof.  Edward  Brown,  President  of  the  International 
Association  of  Poultry  Instructors  and  Investigators,  in 
the  "London  Illustrated  Poultry  Record,"  says:  "The 
most  ardent  advocate  of  artificial  methods  of  hatching  can- 
not but  acknowledge  that  there  is  something  yet  to  learn, 
or  rather  that  incubators  are  second  best  and  hens  are 
first." 

Natural  Incubation  and  Brooding. — By  the  natural 
methods  of  hatching,  the  cost  of  the  incubator  is  eliminated, 
hens  taking  its  place.  In  the  same  way  brooders  are  dis- 
pensed with.  Hens  may  be  set  and  chicks  reared  in  one 
coop,  or  house,  such  as  is  illustrated  on  page  293.  Assuming 
that  it  requires  as  many  eggs  to  hatch  one  hundred  chicks 
with  hens  as  with  an  incubator,  three  coops  costing  not 
more  than  $8  each  will  be  required,  each  coop  accommodat- 
ing four  sitting  hens.  By  setting  the  hens  at  one  time  the 
chicks  hatched  in  one  coop  may  be  given  to  two  hens  to 
brood.  The  hens  need  not  be  included  in  the  cost  of  the 
equipment,  for  they  will  be  worth  practically  as  much  after 
hatching  and  rearing  their  chicks  as  before.  Neither  is  it 
necessary  to  charge  the  method  with  eggs  that  might  have 
been  laid  by  the  hens  if  they  had  not  been  used  for  hatch- 
ing. It  is  doubtful  if  the  hen  will  not  lay  as  many  or  more 
eggs  during  the  year  if  she  has  hatched  and  reared  a  brood 
of  chicks  than  if  her  natural  instincts  had  not  been  gratified. 
By  taking  a  month  or  six  weeks  off  for  hatching  in  the 


METHODS  OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS 


291 


spring  when  eggs  are  cheap,  the  hen  is  usually  in  better 
condition  and  will  begin  to  lay  earlier  in  the  fall  when 
eggs  are  a  good  price.  It  is  not  certain,  therefore,  that  the 
yearly  production  of  a  hen  will  be  lessened  by  -allowing  her 
to  hatch  and  rear  a  brood  of  chicks. 

Two  Methods  of  Hen  Hatching. — If  a  proper  system 
be  followed,  chickens  may  be  conveniently  and  successfully 


NESTS  USED  FOR  SITTING  HENS 

Showing  apparatus  used  for  drawing  air  from  under  sitting  hens  for  determina- 
tions of  humidity  and  carbon  dioxide  in  the  nests.     (Oregon  Station.) 

reared  in  large  numbers  by  natural  methods.  In  hatching 
with  hens  a  system  should  be  followed  that  will  economize 
in  the  labor  in  caring  for  the  hens.  On  most  farms  very 
little  attention  is  given  to  furnishing  convenient  hatching 
facilities.  A  little  thought  and  a  few  dollars  spent  for 
equipment  will  make  the  work  less  troublesome  and  uncer- 
tain. One  of  two  methods  may  be  followed.  The  first  re- 
quires daily  attention  in  letting  the  sitters  off  the  nest  and 


292  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

seeing  that  they  go  back  again.  By  the  second  method  the 
hen  leaves  the  nest  and  returns  at  will. 

Where  it  is  desired  to  set  a  large  number  of  hens,  they 
will  be  conveniently  looked  after  by  making  a  bank  of 
nests  along  the  side  of  a  poultry  house  or  in  some  unused 
shed.  The  nests  should  be  about  12  x  12  x  14  inches  in  size, 
made  by  taking  two  12-inch  boards  for  the  top  and  bottom 
and  cutting  another  12-inch  board  into  14-inch  lengths  for 
the  partitions,  then  nailing  them  together,  as  many  as  de- 
sired. The  top  of  the  bottom  row  will  furnish  the  bottom 
of  the  second  row,  and  four  or  five  rows  of  nests  may  thus 
be  placed  together.  There  should  be  a  hinged  board  at 
front  to  confine  the  sitters.  The  hens  should  be  let  out  every 
day  to  eat  and  drink  for  about  15  minutes,  the  length  of 
time  depending  on  weather  conditions.  Several  inches  of 
fine  waste  hay  should  be  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  nests. 
Short-cut  straw  or  clean  chaff  will  answer  the  purpose. 

The  second  method  of  hatching  and  brooding  by  hens 
requires  less  care  on  the  part  of  the  attendant.  "We  have 
found  it  to  work  well  at  the  Oregon  Station.  One  coop 
serves  for  both  hatching  and  rearing  the  chicks.  It  serves 
the  triple  purpose  of  an  incubator,  a  brooder,  and  a  colony 
house. 

A  convenient  size  of  coop  is  5  feet  long  and  3  feet  wide, 
with  a  shed  roof  3  feet  high  at  front  and  2  feet  at  back. 
It  is  large  enough  to  divide  into  separate  apartments  for 
four  sitting  hens.  Movable  partitions  of  canvas  or  burlap 
are  fastened  to  a  4-inch  or  6-inch  board  at  the  bottom  and 
to  a  cross-piece  at  the  top.  It  has  an  outside  run  3  feet 
long  for  each  hen,  covered  with  wire  netting.  The  runs 
are  hooked  on  to  the  house  and  may  be  dispensed  with  when 
the  chicks  are  hatched.  These  runs  give  the  hens  oppor- 
tunity for  dusting  and  exercise.  By  keeping  feed  and 
water  before  them  all  the  time,  the  sitters  may  be  allowed 


METHODS  OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS 


293 


to  leave  the  nests 
and  return  a  t 
will.  In  this  way, 
very  little  labor 
is  required  in 
caring  for  sitting 
hens.  The  door 
on  the  front  is 
hinged  at  the  top. 
Underneath  this 
there  is  a  frame 
of  wire  netting  of 
1-inch  mesh ;  in 
mild  weather  the 
door  may  be  kept 
open.  This  makes 
it  an  open  -  front 
house,  and  during 
the  summer 
months,  when  the 
growing  chicks 
use  it  as  a  roost- 
ing-house,  it  will 
be  ifound  that  this 
provision  for 
fresh  air  is  a 
necessary  one. 
More  convenient- 
ly to  get  at  the 
nests  or  sitters, 
there  is  an  open- 
ing at  the  back  of 
the  coop.  The  top 
board,  which  is 


(1)  Arranged  for  hatching,  with  doors  closed. 


(2)  Showing  door  and  top  open. 


(3)  Arranged  for  brooding,  with  runs  detached. 

THE  OREGON  STATION  COMBINATION  HATCH- 
ING AND  BROODING  COOP 

For  four  sitting  hens,  each  in  separate_apartment. 


294 


POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 


10  or  12  inches  wide,  is  hinged  at  the  bottom  and  cut 
in  the  center,  one  door  serving  for  two  nests.  It  is  also 
an  advantage  to  put  hinges  on  the  roof  so  that  it  may  be 
opened.  In  dry  locations  and  where  the  house  can  be 
moved  to  fresh  ground  occasionally,  floors  are  not  neces- 
sary or  desirable.  In  some  localities  where  rats  are  a  pest, 
a  floor  will  serve  to  prevent  losses  of  eggs  and  chicks. 

When  the  chicks  hatch,  about  twenty  of  them  may  be 
given  to  a  hen  to  brood,  and  the  remaining  hens  reset.  The 

hen  and  chicks  may  be 
put  in  a  coop  such  as  is 
shown  on  this  page.  This 
will  afford  them  shelter 
for  a  month  or  six  weeks, 
after  which  a  larger 
coop  in  which  they  can 
be  brought  to  maturity 
will  have  to  be  provided. 
Or  the  small  coop  may 
be  dispensed  with,  and 
the  hen  and  chicks 
transferred  at  once  to 
the  larger  coop.  A  coop  the  size  of  that  illustrated  011 
page  293  is  large  enough  to  rear  the  chicks  of  two  hens, 
or  forty  chicks. 

A  New  Brood  Coop.— A  brood  coop  which  may  also 
be  used  for  sitting  hens  is  shown  on  pages  294  and  295.  It 
is  ratproof  and  rainproof.  The  wire  front  affords  pro- 
vision for  fresh  air.  The  netting  is  of  1-inch  mesh.  The 
door  which  slides  up  and  down  may  be  fastened  with  a 
wooden  pin,  to  allow  the  chicks  to  come  out  and  confine  the 
hen.  The  bottom  is  separate  to  afford  easy  cleaning.  To 
clean,  the  floor  is  pulled  from  under  the  coop,  or  the  coop 
lifted  to  one  side.  Where  there  is  no  danger  from  rats  or 


A  NEW  BROOD  COOP 
Oregon  Station. 


METHODS   OF   HATCHING  CHICKENS 


295 


END  VIEW 


other  vermin  and  the  ground  is  not  too  damp,  the  floor  may 
be  dispensed  with.  The 
roof  is  likewise  separate. 
This  makes  it  more  con- 
venient to  catch  the  hen 
or  the  chicks.  The  roof 
is  made  of  flooring  and 
the  sides  of  shiplap.  To 
prevent  rain  beating  in- 
to the  coop  and  also  to 
protect  from  the  sun  in 
hot  weather,  a  shield  is 
provided,  hanging  a  t 
different  angles.  When 
not  in  use  this  shield  is 
pushed  back  under  the 
roof.  To  keep  the  shield 
from  falling  down  when 
it  is  pulled  out,  two 
pieces  of  strap  iron, 
with  proper  bent,  are 
fastened  to  the  board. 
For  further  details,  see 
working  plan,  this  page. 
Points  on  Setting  a 
Hen. — The  best  sitters 
are  the  breeds  of  the 
American  and  Asiatic 
classes.  The  Mediterraneans,  such  as  Leghorn,  Minorca, 
Andalusian,  are  not  good  sitters.  Hens  of  gentle  dis- 
position should  be  chosen  if  possible.  The  normal  tem- 
perature of  the  hen's  body  is  about  106  degrees.  One 
good  broody  hen  will  take  care  of  twenty  chicks.  An- 
other advantage  of  setting  several  hens  at  a  time  is  that 


PLAN    OF    HEN    BROOD    COOP 


296  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  chicks  may  be  "doubled  up."  For  an  average  hen, 
13  eggs  are  enough  for  a  sitting. 

Dust  the  hen  with  insect  powder  when  taking  her  off 
the  nest.  Examine  the  heads  of  the  chicks  two  or  three 
days  after  hatching,  and  if  lice  are  found,  rub  a  little  lard 
on  the  head  and  under  the  throat.  If  the  hen  has  been 
properly  treated  for  lice  while  sitting,  there  will  be  no 
necessity  for  treating  the  chicks  for  lice.  But  watch  them. 

Moistening  the  eggs  before  hatching  is  not  necessary. 


HEN   BROODING   AT   OREGON    STATION 

The  hen  attends  to  that  herself.  Keep  the  hen  and  chicks 
on  clean  grass  runs  if  possible.  If  properly  managed,  the 
hen  may  be  got  to  laying  after  being  with  the  chicks  two 
or  three  weeks.  In  warm  weather  the  chicks  may  be 
"weaned"  when  a  month  old. 

Feed  the  sitters  corn  or  wheat,  all  they  will  eat,  and  pro- 
vide grit,  water,  and  a  little  green  food.  Provide  also  a 
box  of  earth  for  dusting ;  earth  should  not  be  too  dry. 

The  hen  will  usually  hatch  best  in  a  nest  on  the  ground, 
but  the  ground  should  not  be  too  hard.  Cover  it  with 
chaff,  or  short  straw  or  hay.  If  the  hen  is  set  on  a  board 


METHODS  OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS 


297 


floor,  put  in  two  or  three  inches  of  moist  earth,  hollow  the 
nest  slightly  in  the  center  and  cover  with  straw  or  hay. 
Planer  shavings  are  also  good  nesting  material. 

Dust  the  hens  with  a  good  insect  powder  or  tobacco  dust 
when  setting  them,  and  again  ten  days  later  rub  it  well 
into  the  roots  of  the  feathers.  Put  a  spoonful  of  the  same 
material,  or  a 
moth-ball,  in  the 
center  of  the 
nest.  "With  this 
treatment  the 
hen  should  be 
free  from  these 
pests  during  the 
period  of  incu- 
bation, if  the 
house  or  box  in 
which  she  is  sit- 
ting is  not  in- 
f es  t  ed  with 
them.  If  it  is  found  necessary,  dust  the  hen  oftener. 

Period  of  Incubation. — The  period  of  incubation  for 
different  species  of  poultry  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Species  Days  Species  Days 

Hen  21  Peafowl    28 

Pheasant   22-24  Guinea 26-28 

Duck 28  Ostrich    42 

Duck  (Muscovy)    33-35  Goose   30-34 

Turkey    28 

Selecting  Eggs  for  Hatching. — It  is  not  possible  to  de- 
termine whether  a  fresh  egg  is  fertile  or  will  hatch.  The 
egg  must  be  under  the  sitting  hen  or  in  the  incubator 
several  days  before  its  fertility  may  be  determined.  Neither 


ANOTHER  TYPE  OF  BROOD  COOP 
Made  out  of  a  shoe  box. 


298  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

is  it  possible  to  tell  from  any  differences  in  shape  of  the 
egg  whether  it  will  hatch  a  male  or  female  chick.  The 
shape  or  size  of  the  egg  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  sex  of 
the  chick.  There  are,  however,  certain  points  in  shape  and 
structure  of  the  egg  that  should  be  considered  in  select- 
ing eggs  for  hatching.  Normal  eggs  should  be  selected. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  eggs  should  all  be  of  the  same 
size.  Eggs  laid  by  different  hens  vary  in  size  even  when 


BROODING   COOPS 

The  brooding  coops  on  the  farm  of  F.  W.  C.  Almy,  Rhode  Island,  where  5,000 
chicks  were  hatched  and  brooded  by  hens  in  a  year. 

the  hens  are  of  the  same  breed.  One  hen  may  lay  an  egg 
weighing  more  than  two  ounces;  another,  less  than  two 
ounces. 

The  most  profitable  hen  is  not  necessarily  the  one  that 
lays  the  largest  egg.  The  hen  that  lays  a  small  egg  may 
produce  so  many  more  of  them  in  a  year  that  she  will  lay 


METHODS   OF   HATCHING  CHICKENS  299 

a  greater  weight  of  eggs  in  a  year  even  though  her  eggs 
average  much  less  in  weight.  The  large  egg  may  be  normal 
for  one  hen  and  the  smaller  egg  for  the  other.  Other 
things  being  equal  the  one  will  hatch  as  well  as  the  other. 
The  size  of  egg  is  a  matter  of  breeding  or  heredity.  It  is 
well  to  use  the  larger  eggs  for  hatching,  because  in  that 
way  it  will  be  possible  in  a  few  years  to  breed  up  a  strain 
of  fowls  that  will  lay  larger  eggs.  Abnormally  large  or 
small  eggs  should  not  be  used  for  hatching.  Eggs  that  are 
not  normal  in  shape  should  also  be  discarded.  Ill-shaped, 
rough-shelled,  dirty  eggs  should  not  be  used. 

It  is  very  important  to  select  fresh  eggs,  the  fresher  the 
better.  It  is  possible  to  keep  eggs  several  weeks  and  have 
them  hatch,  but  eggs  lose  in  hatching  quality  the  longer 
they  are  kept.  They  will  keep  in  a  cool  place  better  than 
in  a  warm  place.  They  should  not  be  kept  in  a  moist,  damp 
room.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  turn  them  once  a  day  and  to 
handle  them  with  clean  hands. 

There  is  great  difference  in  eggs  in  fertility  and  hatch- 
ability.  One  of  the  chief  causes  of  infertility  in  eggs  is 
close  confinement  of  the  layers.  Experiments  have  shown 
that  eggs  produced  by  fowls  on  free  range  are  more  fertile 
and  hatch  better  than  those  from  fowls  confined  in  yards. 
(West  Virginia  Bulletin  71.)  In  these  experiments  about 
three  times  as  many  eggs  tested  infertile  from  the  confined 
fowls  as  from  those  having  unrestricted  range.  Whether 
the  increased  fertility  from  the  latter  was  due  to  possibly 
greater  exercise  or  to  natural  foods  found  on  the  range, 
the  experiment  does  not  show.  So  much  importance,  how- 
ever, is  placed  on  this  point  that  many  of  the  large 
hatcheries  refuse  to  use  eggs  that  have  not  been  laid  by 
hens  that  enjoy  free  range. 

Testing  the  Eggs. — After  six  or  seven  days  of  incuba- 
tion, the  infertile  eggs  may  be  taken  out  and  saved  for  the 


300 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


chicks.  Rotten  eggs  should  also  be  removed.  If  a  number 
of  hens  are  set  at  one  time,  they  may  be  doubled  up  after 
testing;  that  is,  if  as  many  as  a  sitting  are  tested  out,  one 
hen  may  be  reset  on  fresh  eggs.  An  egg-tester  may  be  pur- 
chased from  a  poultry  supply  house,  or  a  small  box  may  be 
used  in  which  an  electric  light  globe  may  be  put.  A  coal 
oil  lamp  or  candle  may  be  used  instead  of  an  electric  light 
bulb.  (See  pages  353-354.) 

In  one  side  of  the  box  cut  a  hole  about  the  size  of  an  egg. 
Testing  is  done  in  a  dark  room  or  at  night  by  holding  the 
egg  to  the  light  at  the  hole  in  box.  Eggs  may  be  tested  by 
daylight  by  holding  the  egg  at  the  end  of  a  tube  or  funnel 
and  pointing  it  toward  the  light.  "Where  the  incubator 

room  is  fairly  dark  the 
eggs  may  be  held  at  a 
hole  in  the  wall  and 
tested.  "With  two  holes 
a  little  smaller  than  an 
egg,  two  eggs  may  be 
held  up  at  one  time. 

In  testing  incubator 
eggs  the  tray  may  be 
taken  outdoors  in  the 
light  and  by  using  the 
funnel  looking  down  on 
the  eggs  they  may  be 
quickly  and  easily 
tested.  Another  method 
of  testing  without  hand- 
ling the  eggs  is  to  use  a 
flashlight  under  the  tray 
in  a  dark  or  moderately 
dark  room  and  looking 
down  on  the  eggs  direct- 


DIVISION    OF    POULTRY    LABOR 

Some  of  the  poultry  farmers  at  Peta- 
luma,  Cal.,  take  the  eggs  to  the  hatchery 
and  pay  the  hatcher  3  or  4  cents  apiece  for 
hatching  the  chicks.  The  photo  shows  part 
of  a  hatch  of  1,500  chicks  at  a  Petaluma 
hatchery,  which  are  to  be  taken  by  another 
party  to  raise. 


METHODS  OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS  301 

ly  above  the  flashlight.  The  latter  two  methods  obviate 
touching  the  eggs  with  hands.  An  infertile  egg  will  look 
clear,  just  like  a  fresh  egg,  only  it  has  a  little  larger  air 
cell.  A  fertile  egg  will  show  dark. 

Artificial  Incubation. — The  hatching  and  rearing  of 
chicks  by  artificial  means  has  been  practiced  by  Egyptians 
and  Chinese  for  centuries.  The  ancient  methods  were 
crude,  and  their  success  depended  upon  skill  obtained  by 
long  years  of  practice.  The  secret  was  handed  down  from 


THE  SAME  CHICKS  LOADED  ONTO  THE  WAGON  OF  THE  MAN  WHO 
CONTRACTS  TO  RAISE  THEM 

father  to  son.  No  thermometer  was  used,  the  temperature 
being  judged  by  the  "feel"  of  the  operator.  Large  hatch- 
ing '  *  ovens ' '  were  used.  The  eggs  were  purchased,  and  the 
chicks  sold  for  about  $1  a  hundred.  The  business  of  hatch- 
ing was  confined  to  a  few  hatcheries  or  a  few  families  who 
appeared  to  have  a  monopoly  of  the  business.  The  same 
methods  are  followed  to-day  in  Egypt,  China  and  other 
countries. 

In  Europe  and  America  artificial  incubation  is  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin.  So  far  as  a  practical  application 
is  concerned  its  history  goes  back  less  than  50  years.  In- 
cubators had  been  used  before.  The  first  of  which  there  is 


302  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

account  was  that  of  Reaumur,  a  Frenchman,  who  made  and 
used  a  machine  in  1749.  Development  has  been  along 
different  lines  than  in  Egypt  and  China.  The  monopolistic 
tendency  is  absent;  the  effort  is  to  place  machines  on  the 
market  whose  essential  points  are  ease  of  operation  and 
availability  to  all  poultry-raisers.  In  recent  years,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  distinct  tendency  toward  centralized  hatch- 
ing where  the  business  is  turned  over  to  large  hatcheries, 
and  the  poultrymen  purchase  the  chicks  as  they  come  from 


BROODER  HOUSE 

The  chicks  were  loaded  onto  a  wagon  by  the  man  who  contracts  to  raise 
them,  taken  two  miles  into  the  country  and  put  in  brooder  houses  shown  above. 
The  farmer  takes  the  eggs  to  the  hatchery,  where  Mr.  A.,  the  hatcher,  hatches 
the  chicks  at  so  much  per,  and  Mr.  B.  takes  them  and  rears  them  at  so 
much  per. 

the  incubator.  In  place  of  incubators  with  capacities  from 
a  few  dozen  eggs  to  two  and  three  hundred  eggs,  there  are 
now  machines  with  capacities  of  3,000  to  10,000  eggs. 

The  Incubator  House. — For  successful  hatching  the 
temperature  of  the  room  in  which  the  incubator  is  operated 
must  be  controlled  within  certain  limits.  The  first  require- 
ment of  an  incubator  room  is  a  fairly  even  temperature. 
The  less  the  temperature  varies,  the  more  easily  may  the 


METHODS   OF   HATCHING  CHICKENS  303 

temperature  of  the  incubator  be  maintained.  It  is  not 
necessary  that  the  room  have  the  same  temperature  night 
and  day.  Within  a  reasonable  range  of  temperature,  say 
10  degrees,  the  temperature  inside  the  incubators  as  now 
constructed  may  be  fairly  well  maintained. 

Ventilation  of  the  Room. — Of  equal  importance  is  the 
ventilation  of  the  room  of  the  incubator  house.  The  de- 
veloping chicks  make  a  constant  demand  for  oxygen,  and 


OREGON  STATION  INCUBATOR  HOUSE 

unless  the  ventilation  of  the  room  be  ample  the  chicks 
will  not  develop  and  hatch  with  high  vitality.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  the  writer  that  low  vitality  in  the  chicks  is  often 
the  result  of  an  insufficient  supply  of  oxygen  during  incu- 
bation, more  often  than  the  result  of  variations  in  the 
temperature  of  the  incubator  house  or  in  the  machine, 
though  that  also  is  important. 

A  cellar  or  underground  room  is  often  used  for  the  in- 
cubator. "While  it  may  afford  the  best  conditions  for  con- 
trolling the  temperature,  it  offers  the  poorest  conditions 
for  maintaining  proper  air  purity.  Fresh  air  is  as  im- 
portant as  a  uniform  temperature,  and  success  will  not  be 


304 


POULTRY  BREEDING   AND  MANAGEMENT 


made  where  one  or  the  other  of  these  factors  is  absent. 
During  cold  weather  there  will  be  less  difficulty  in  securing 
good  ventilation,  because  there  is  a  more  rapid  exchange  of 
air  where  the  difference  between  the  inside  and  outside  tem- 
perature is  great.  In  warm  weather  when  the  temperature 
inside  and  outside  the  incubator  room  is  about  the  same, 
the  air  will  be  stagnant,  and  the  growing  embryo  will 
suffer  from  a  lack  of  oxygen. 

Analysis  of  air  in  an  underground  incubator  cellar  at  the 


INTERIOR  OF  OREGON  STATION  INCUBATOR  HOUSE 
On  the  left  tests  are  being  made  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  incubators. 

Utah  Station  while  incubators  were  running  showed  as 
high  as  thirty  parts  carbonic  acid  gas  in  10,000  parts.  This 
is  undoubtedly  much  beyond  the  limit  of  safety.  At  the 
Oregon  Station  in  an  incubator  room  above  ground,  analysis 
showed  9.9  parts,  the  highest,  and  an  average  of  7.5.  Tests 
in  May  showed  more  carbon  dioxide  than  in  April. 

This  is  a  possible  explanation  of  the  fact  that  chicks 
hatched  in  the  cool  weather  have  better  vitality  than  those 
in  the  warm  weather  of  summer.  Incubators  are  now 
built  with  sufficiently  sensitive  temperature  regulation  that 


METHODS  OF   HATCHING  CHICKENS 


305 


it  is  not  essential  that  the  temperature  of  the  room  be  so 
constant  that  an  underground  cellar  is  necessary.  A  house 
above  ground,  properly  constructed,  is  more  desirable  than 
an  underground  room  or  cellar.  In  warm  sections  of  the 
country  it  will  aid  in  maintaining  a  more  uniform  tempera- 
ture if  the  house  can  be  shaded  by  other  buildings  or  trees. 
Choice  of  an  Incubator. — There  are  probably  half  a 
hundred  different  incubators  in  general  use,  and  many  of 
them  differ  only  in  name.  The  essential  features  of  the 


A   ISO-EGG  INCUBATOR,   KEROSENE  LAMP  HEATED 

majority  of  incubators  are  alike.  The  source  of  heat  is 
usually  a  kerosene  lamp.  Others  are  heated  by  gas  or  elec- 
tricity. While  the  source  of  heat  may  be  the  same,  the 
methods  of  distributing  the  heat  over  the  eggs  varies  in 
different  machines.  Because  of  this  difference,  incubators 
have  been  divided  into  two  classes ;  the  one  in  which  the 
heat  is  radiated  from  a  tank  of  hot  water  over  the  eggs, 
or  from  hot  water  pipes ;  the  other  type,  in  which,  the  hot 
air  is  diffused  through  cloth  or  muslin  directly  over  the 


306 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


eggs.  In  the  former,  the  hot  water  tank  heats  air  already 
in  the  egg  chamber ;  in  the  latter,  fresh  air  is  heated  by  the 
lamp  as  it  enters  the  machine  and  the  same  air  enters  the 
egg  chamber  by  diffusion.  So  that  there  is  the  diffusion 
type  of  machine  and  the  radiated  heat  type.  In  the  latter 
the  ventilation  is  independent  of  the  source  of  heat.  It 


A  250-EGG   INCUBATOR,   KEROSENE   LAMP   HEATED 

requires  longer  to  heat  up  the  hot  water  machine  than  the 
hot  air. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  former  maintains  the  heat  longer, 
and  this  is  an  advantage  in  case  the  lamp  goes  out.  To 
secure  the  same  ventilation,  or  the  same  rate  of  exchange  of 
air  in  the  hot  water  machine  as  in  the  hot  air,  or  the  same 
degree  of  air  purity,  there  must  be  more  openings  for 
ventilation  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  If  the  ventila- 
tion be  arranged,  therefore,  so  that  there  may  be  the  same 
rate  of  exchange  of  air,  or  the  same  degree  of  air  purity, 
there  should  be  little,  if  any,  difference  in  efficiency  due  to 


METHODS   OF   HATCHING  CHICKENS  307 

the  different  methods  of  furnishing  heat  to  the  eggs  in  the 
two  types  of  machines. 

The  tank  in  the  hot  water  machine  adds  to  its  cost.  The 
tank  is  also  likely  to  get  out  of  repair  and  leak  after  a  few 
seasons'  use.  The  hot  air  type  of  machine  is  more  generally 
used,  and  on  the  whole  is  the  more  satisfactory.  Whatever 
may  be  the  type  of  machine  decided  upon,  however,  one 
that  is  well  made  should  be  chosen. 

Size  of  Machine. — Machines  vary  in  capacity  from  fifty 
eggs  to  several  thousand.  Those  of  less  than  100-egg  capac- 
ity have  not  proven  as  satisfactory  as  larger  machines.  A 
machine  of  125  to  150  capacity  should  give  as  good  results 
as  larger  machines.  A  machine  of  this  capacity  may  be 
used  for  any  number  of  eggs  less  than  that.  It  is  a  question 
whether  the  machine  would  not  hatch  better  if  not  crowded 
to  its  full  capacity.  The  size  of  machine  to  select  should 
be  governed,  first,  by  the  number  of  chicks  it  is  desired  to 
hatch,  and,  second,  by  the  number  of  suitable  fresh  eggs 
that  may  be  secured.  Where  chicks  are  to  be  hatched  for 
fall  and  winter  layers  they  should  all  be  hatched  at  about 
the  same  time,  or  within  a  period  that  will  bring  the  pullets 
to  maturity  at  the  proper  time  for  laying.  On  this  account 
it  will  be  better  to  confine  the  hatching  to  two  runs  of  the 
incubator.  That  would  make  a  difference  in  about  four 
weeks  in  the  ages  of  the  two  lots  of  pullets.  A  mistake  is 
made  in  hatching  too  early  as  well  as  in  hatching  too  late 
where  good  fall  and  winter  layers  are  desired.  If  the  pur- 
pose is  to  produce  about  one  hundred  pullets  for  fall  and 
winter  laying,  two  runs  of  a  150-egg  machine  will  be  neces- 
sary. As  to  the  egg  supply,  the  fresher  the  eggs  the  better, 
and  an  assured  supply  of  eggs  of  good  hatching  quality  is 
necessary  before  purchasing  the  incubator.  (See  page  299.) 

Operating  the  Incubator. — Space  need  not  be  taken 
here  with  elaborate  directions  for  running  the  machine. 


308  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

The  purchaser  of  an  incubator  is  furnished  directions  for 
its  care,  and  those  directions  should  be  carefully  followed 
until,  at  least,  experience  has  demonstrated  that  they  may 
be  modified  with  advantage.  Second,  the  construction  of 
machines  varies  more  or  less,  and  no  set  of  directions  will 
suit  all  machines.  The  safe  plan,  therefore,  is  to  study  the 
directions  that  come  with  the  machine.  While  different 
machines  require  different  methods  of  operating,  on  some 
fundamental  points,  however,  there  should  be  agreement 
in  directions. 

Humidity  Conditions. — On  the  question  as  to  whether 
moisture  should  be  supplied  to  the  incubator,  there  is  a 
great  diversity  of  views  among  incubator  makers.  In  ex- 
periments by  the  writer  at  the  Utah  and  Oregon  Stations, 
it  has  been  found  that  moisture  or  humidity  conditions  have 
a  great  deal  to  do  in  the  successful  incubation  of  hen  eggs. 

Experiments  reported  in  Utah  Bulletin  92  (1905) 
showed  that  there  was  a  greater  loss  in  weight  of  eggs  in 
incubators  than  under  hens  during  incubation.  This  loss 
is  largely  water  evaporated.  In  the  first  18  days  of  incuba- 
tion the  average  loss  in  incubators  was  18.4%,  and  of  eggs 
under  hens  the  loss  was  15%.  In  later  experiments  at  the 
same  station  (Bulletin  102,  1907)  machines  with  no 
moisture  averaged  17.8%  loss,  medium  amount  of  moisture 
14%,  and  with  maximum  amount  of  moisture  the  loss  was 
12.3%.  At  the  Oregon  Station,  as  reported  in  Bulletin  100 
(1908) ,  eggs  under  sitting  hens  in  dry  nests  averaged  14.8% 
loss.  In  later  tests  the  average  was  lower  than  this.  The 
results  were  for  no-moisture  machines  16.6%  loss,  medium 
moisture  12.8%,  and  maximum  moisture  10.8%.  The  loss 
is  also  affected  by  the  amount  of  ventilation,  as  discussed 
in  another  place. 

Some  startling  differences  in  the  hatching  were  secured. 
In  the  Utah  experiment  (1907)  maximum  moisture  pro- 


METHODS  OF   HATCHING  CHICKENS  309 

duced  329  chicks,  medium  moisture  319,  and  no  moisture 
278  chicks  from  the  same  number  of  eggs  put  in.  At  the 
Oregon  Station  (Bulletin  100)  medium  moisture  produced 
424  chicks,  maximum  420,  and  no  moisture  330.  In  each 
case  the  same  kind  and  number  of  eggs  were  used  in  the 
different  machines.  Many  subsequent  experiments  showed 
similar  beneficial  results  from  the  use  of  moisture  in  num- 
ber of  chicks  hatched.  They  showed  further  that  larger 
and  heavier  chicks  were  hatched  where  moisture  was  used. 
These  experiments  were  made  with  a  "moisture"  machine. 

Amount  of  Moisture  to  Use. — The  experiments  showed 
that  extreme  dryness  as  well  as  extreme  humidity  were 
alike  detrimental.  The  amount  to  use  depends  largely 
upon  the  amount  of  ventilation.  It  was  also  shown  that 
the  range  between  the  temperature  of  the  incubator  and 
the  room  influenced  the  humidity  of  the  machine.  As  the 
difference  increased  the  humidity  decreased.  It  is  this 
difference  or  range  of  temperature  between  the  machine 
and  the  room  that  causes  the  circulation  of  air  through 
the  machine.  As  the  difference  decreases  there  is  less  cir- 
culation and  consequently  higher  humidity.  To  maintain 
a  uniform  humidity,  therefore,  account  must  be  taken  of 
the  range  of  temperature,  and  the  supply  of  moisture 
governed  accordingly.  One  machine  required  double  the 
amount  of  supplied  moisture  to  maintain  the  same  humidity 
conditions  as  another  machine  of  different  make,  due  to 
difference  in  ventilation.  This  was  shown  by  the  reading 
of  the  wet  bulb  thermometer. 

The  Wet  Bulb  as  a  Guide  for  Moisture. — The  wet  bulb 
thermometer  may  be  used  to  advantage  as  an  indicator  of 
the  proper  degree  of  humidity  in  the  incubator.  This  is 
an  ordinary  thermometer,  the  bulb  of  which  is  covered  with 
a  muslin  or  silk  wick,  one  end  of  which  is  inserted  in  a  cup 
of  water.  Evaporation  is  a  cooling  process,  and  as  the 


31Q  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

water  evaporates  on  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  the  tem- 
perature is  lowered.  The  rate  of  cooling  depends  upon  the 
rate  of  evaporation.  If  the  evaporation  is  great  or  rapid 
the  temperature  is  lower;  if  the  evaporation  is  less  the 
temperature  rises.  The  rate  of  evaporation  is  influenced 
by  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  air  surrounding  the  ther- 
mometer. The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  air  takes  up 
moisture  fast  or  slow  as  it  approaches  or  departs  from  the 
point  of  saturation.  "When  the  wet  and  dry  bulbs  have 
the  same  temperature  the  point  of  saturation  has  been 
reached  and  instead  of  being  taken  up  by  the  air,  moisture 
is  given  off;  this  is  what  causes  rain.  The  drier  the  air, 
therefore,  in  the  machine  the  greater  its  thirst  for  moisture, 
therefore  the  more  rapid  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from 
the  wick  on  the  bulb  the  greater  the  consequent  cooling  of 
the  bulb.  The  drier  the  machine  the  more  moisture  will 
evaporate  on  the  bulb  and  the  lower  the  temperature  of 
the  wet  bulb  will  be.  The  more  moisture  in  the  air  the 
higher  the  temperature  of  the  wet  bulb  will  read. 

What  is  the  Best  Wet  Bulb  Temperature  for  Hatching? 
— In  machines  with  no  supplied  moisture  there  was  an 
average  wet  bulb  temperature  of  84  to  85  degrees.  Machines 
of  the  same  make,  with  a  tray  of  wet  sand  covering  half 
the  floor  of  the  egg  chamber,  averaged  about  88  degrees; 
and  in  others  with  a  tray  of  wet  sand  covering  the  entire 
bottom  of  the  machine  the  temperature  was  90  to  91  degrees. 

As  reported  in  Oregon  Bulletin  100:  "An  average  wet 
bulb  temperature  of  87.6  gave  32.6%  better  hatches  than 
one  of  84.5%  and  slightly  better  than  one  of  91%." 

Later  experiments  at  the  same  station  confirm  these  re- 
sults. The  importance  of  moisture  is  strongly  indicated. 
The  efficiency  of  the  particular  incubator  used  was  in- 
creased over  30%  by  using  an  amount  of  moisture  that 
maintained  a  wet  bulb  temperature  of  88  degrees  instead 


METHODS  OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS  311 

of  85.  A  wet  bulb  temperature,  therefore,  of  about  88 
degrees  seems  to  indicate  the  best  humidity  conditions  of 
the  incubator. 

It  is  not  assumed  that  it  is  necessary  to  supply  moisture 
to  the  incubator  to  maintain  the  proper  humidity  conditions 
of  the  egg  chamber.  Further  experiments  showed  that 
different  incubators  required  varying  amounts  of  moisture 
to  maintain  the  same  readings  of  the  wet  bulb  thermometer, 
one  incubator  requiring  double  the  amount  of  another.  The 
explanation  is  that  the  ventilation  in  the  one  machine  was 
greater  than  in  the  other.  The  humidity  conditions  there- 
fore are  strongly  influenced  by  the  amount  of  ventilation. 
Again  it  was  demonstrated  that  by  cutting  off  the  ventila- 
tion, the  proper  wet  bulb  temperature  could  be  maintained 
without  supplying  any  moisture. 

Moisture  and  Carbonic  Acid  Gas. — An  explanation,  or 
partial  explanation,  of  the  results  obtained  from  supplied 
moisture  was  discovered  in  another  experiment.  Carbonic 
acid  gas  with  moisture  decomposes  calcium  carbonate.  The 
egg  shell  is  93.7%  calcium  carbonate.  Eggs  emptied  of 
their  contents  were  put  in  glass  fruit  jars,  some  with  water 
and  some  without.  The  jars  were  then  put  in  an  incubator 
for  21  days,  and  a  strong  current  of  carbonic  acid  gas  was 
forced  through  them.  At  the  end  of  the  incubation  period, 
the  egg  shells  in  jars  containing  water  in  the  bottom  were 
broken  down  or  dissolved,  while  those  without  the  moisture 
in  the  jars  were  unaffected  and  apparently  as  strong  and 
hard  as  at  the  start.  From  this  it  appeared  that  the  shell 
is  something  more  than  a  mere  covering  to  preserve  the 
egg.  A  German  experimenter  found  that  there  was  a  loss 
of  lime  in  the  shell  during  incubation. 

What  becomes  of  it?  Chemical  investigations  at  the 
Oregon  Station  showed  that  the  chick  as  it  was  developing 
within  the  shell  was  drawing  upon  the  shell  for  nutrition ; 


312  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

that  there  was  a  gradual  increase  in  the  ash  or  lime  con- 
tents of  the  chick,  and  that  the  chick  was  able  to  break 
through  the  shell  with  strength  derived  in  part  from  the 
shell  itself.  It  was  also  found  that  the  chick  contains  con- 
siderably more  lime  than  the  contents  of  the  egg  itself. 
Without  the  mineral  elements  of  the  shell  the  chick  would 
be  unable  to  grow  its  frame  or  skeleton.  The  shell  there- 
fore has  a  vital  function  to  perform  in  the  hatching 
process,  in  the  development  of  the  chick.  Moisture  with 
carbon  dioxide  does  not  merely  weaken  the  shell  so  the  chick 
will  be  able  to  break  through,  but  the  dissolved  lime  of  the 
shell  goes  to  assist  in  the  formation  of  the  chick  and  de- 
termines to  a  certain  extent  the  future  strength  and  vitality 
of  the  fowl. 

But  is  not  the  moisture  within  the  egg  sufficient  for  this 
purpose?  With  certain  machines,  or  those  that  gave  over 
30%  better  hatches  with  supplied  moisture  than  without, 
the  development  of  the  chick  was  more  complete,  there  was 
more  ash,  phosphorus  and  protein  in  the  chicks  hatched  by 
the  machines  that  were  supplied  with  moisture.  The  im- 
portant point  brought  out  here  is  that  the  chemical  com- 
position of  the  chick,  its  strength  and  vitality,  is  influenced 
by  the  moisture  in  the  machine. 

It  is  highly  important  that  the  incubator  operator  should 
understand  the  moisture  requirements  for  best  chick  de- 
velopment and  that  he  should  be  able  to  test  the  machine 
for  moisture. 

There  are  other  methods  of  determining  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  machine.  Thermometer  makers  have  de- 
vised different  instruments,  usually  called  hygrometers, 
for  determining  the  humidity  of  the  incubator.  Some  of 
these  are  successful,  others  are  not.  When  properly  con- 
structed they  answer  the  purpose.  The  percentage  humidity 
as  shown  by  the  hygrometer  should  average  about  60%. 


METHODS  OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS  313 

These  instruments,  however,  do  not  give  the  actual  relative 
humidity  in  the  machine.  To  get  a  reading  of  the  hygro- 
meter that  will  represent  the  humidity  of  the  whole  egg 
chamber,  it  is  necessary  that  the  bulb  be  fanned.  That  is 
because  the  moisture  which  is  evaporated  from  the  bulb 
remains  near  the  bulb,  and  that  part  of  the  egg  chamber  is 
therefore  more  moist  than  other  parts  of  the  machine. 

By  fanning  the  bulb,  if  that  were  possible  in  the  in- 
cubator, the  stagnant  moisture  in  the  machine  would  be 
driven  from  near  the  bulb,  and  the  reading  would  then 
represent  actual  conditions  of  the  whole  egg  chamber.  It 
is  in  this  way  that  the  Government  weather  bureau  obser- 
vations of  the  humidity  of  the  air  are  secured ;  the  hygro- 
meter is  fanned.  It  is  not  practicable  to  do  this  in  the 
incubator,  nor  is  it  necessary  in  practice  to  know  the  cor- 
rect humidity.  It  is  sufficient  to  know  that  a  certain  read- 
ing of  the  wet  bulb  thermometer,  or  a  certain  percentage 
of  humidity  as  determined  without  fanning  gives  the 
desired  condition  for  successful  hatching. 

Loss  in  Weight  of  Eggs  a  Guide  to  Moisture. — Another 
method  of  learning  whether  the  humidity  is  right  is  to 
weigh  at  intervals  of  a  few  days  during  the  hatch  a  number 
of  eggs  and  note  the  loss  in  weight.  A  dozen  eggs  may  be 
marked  and  weighed  when  put  in  the  machine,  then  again 
every  six  days  until  the  18th  day.  An  accurate  scale  of 
course  must  be  used.  Different  eggs  vary  in  the  amount 
of  loss  due  to  the  difference  in  the  texture  or  structure  of 
the  shell,  but  an  average  loss  within  the  following  limits 
has  been  found  to  be  about  right : 

During  the  first   6  days 3.5  to    4    %  loss 

During  the  second  6  days 4      to     4.5%  loss 

During  the  third  6   days 4.5  to    5    %  loss 

Total  12.     to  13.5%  loss 

(Utah  Bulletins  92  and  102.     Oregon  Bulletin  100.) 


314  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

After  the  operator  has  once  tested  his  machine  and 
learned  how  much  moisture  is  needed  it  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  continue  the  use  of  a  moisture  test. 

Methods  of  Supplying  Moisture. — Moisture  may  be  fur- 
nished in  the  following  ways :  First  by  putting  a  tray  of 
sand  under  the  egg  tray  and  wetting  as  much  of  the  sand 
as  is  necessary.  The  amount  of  surface  of  the  sand  to 
moisten  will  depend  upon  the  make  of  the  machine  and 
upon  weather  conditions.  Second,  a  pan  of  water  may  be 
put  under  the  egg  tray.  The  sand  tray  is  more  satisfactory 
than  the  pan  inasmuch  as  the  amount  can  be  regulated  by 
increasing  or  decreasing  the  area  of  wet  surface.  This  can- 
not be  done  with  a  pan  of  water.  Third,  the  eggs  may  be 
sprinkled  with  water  at  intervals.  This  method  is  not  very 
effective.  The  supply  of  moisture  should  be  steady  through- 
out the  hatch.  Fourth,  sprinkling  the  floor  and  walls  of 
the  incubator  room  is  a  practice  frequently  followed.  This 
is  not  a  very  effective  method  of  increasing  the  humidity 
in  the  incubator. 

Temperature  of  Incubation. — The  proper  hatching  tem- 
perature is  about  103  degrees  Fahrenheit  at  the  top  of  the 
egg.  It  has  been  found  that  this  is  the  average  temperature 
under  the  sitting  hen.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  incu- 
bation period  the  temperature  is  slightly  higher  than  dur- 
ing the  first  week,  due  to  heat  given  off  by  the  growing 
embryo.  Good  results  have  been  obtained  by  starting  the 
incubator  at  1021/o  and  gradually  raising  the  temperature 
to  103  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  week;  then  main- 
taining it  at  that  temperature.  When  the  chicks  begin  to 
hatch  the  temperature  usually  rises  to  104 ;  that  is  all  right ; 
but  it  should  not  be  permitted  to  go  higher  than  103  for 
more  than  an  hour  or  two  at  a  time. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  the  temperature  be  kept  steady. 
A  difference  of  a  degree,  either  higher  or  lower,  for  a  short 


METHODS  OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS  315 

time,  may  not  injure  the  hatch,  but  the  best  results  can 
only  be  secured  when  the  temperature  is  kept  steady.  This 
refers  to  temperature  conditions  in  all  parts  of  the  egg 
tray.  The  operator  should  test  the  machine  by  putting  a 
thermometer  in  each  corner  and  one  in  the  center  of  the 
egg  tray. 

The  successful  operator  is  not  satisfied  merely  to  hatch 
a  large  percentage  of  the  eggs ;  he  hatches  them  well. 
Chicks  may  be  hatched  but  not  hatched  right.  The  effect 
of  a  wide  range  of  temperature  may  not  show  much  in  the 
number  of  chicks  hatched,  but  it  will  probably  show  more 
in  the  kind  hatched,  though  this  fact  often  escapes  notice. 
The  danger  from  improper  temperatures  is  not  so  much 
in  the  loss  of  chicks  that  fail  to  hatch,  as  in  those  hatched 
with  low  vitality. 

Ventilation. — Not  only  the  incubator  room  but  the  in- 
cubator itself  must  have  good  ventilation  in  order  to  carry 
out  the  impure  air  given  off  by  the  growing  chick  within 
the  shell  and  to  supply  the  required  amount  of  fresh  air 
or  oxygen  for  proper  development.  The  questions  of 
moisture  and  ventilation  are  closely  related.  The  greater 
the  ventilation,  the  more  moisture  is  required.  Some  in- 
cubators are  built  on  the  principle  that  no  moisture  should 
be  supplied,  the  proper  humidity  being  maintained  by  re- 
stricting the  ventilation.  How  much  ventilation  is  neces- 
sary, is  the  problem.  More  data  is  needed  on  this  point. 
It  has  been  very  clearly  established,  however,  at  the  Oregon 
Station,  that  increasing  the  ventilation  without  increasing 
the  moisture  reduces  the  number  of  chicks  hatched  and 
gives  chicks  of  lower  vitality.  This  is  due  to  the  extreme 
dryness  of  the  air  surrounding  the  eggs,  not  to  the  greater 
supply  of  fresh  air.  Under  such  conditions  the  chick  does 
not  make  a  normal  growth.  When  this  excessive  ventila- 
tion, however,  was  supplemented  with  sufficient  moisture 


316  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

to  maintain  the  proper  wet  bulb  temperature  the  results 
were  satisfactory. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Chick  Affected  by  Incuba- 
tion Methods. — It  has  been  definitely  shown  by  the  Oregon 
experiments  that  moisture  and  ventilation  have  a  direct  re- 
lationship to  the  chemical  composition  of  the  chick  hatched. 
The  amount  of  phosphorus,  lime,  and  certain  compounds 
of  protein,  and  even  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  chick,  is 
shown  to  be  markedly  influenced  by  the  amount  of  moisture 
in  the  machine.  Extreme  dryness  produced  chicks  that 
weighed  less  in  dry  matter,  and  lower  in  protein  compounds 
and  phosphoric  acid,  as  well  as  lime,  in  tissue.  This  proves 
definitely  that  the  conditions  or  methods  of  incubation  in- 
fluence not  only  the  number  of  chicks  hatched,  but  the  de- 
velopment and  vitality  of  the  chick  itself. 

Turning  the  Eggs. — Daily  turning  of  the  eggs  in  the  in- 
cubator is  necessary.  This  is  following  nature,  for  it  has 
been  observed  that  the  sitting  hen  turns  the  eggs  frequently. 
Unless  turned,  the  yolk  rises,  being  lighter  than  the  white, 
and  the  germ  spot  comes  in  contact  with  the  shell,  or  shell 
membrane,  which  is  fatal.  Turning  should  begin  after  the 
eggs  have  been  in  the  incubator  two  days. 

It  is  important  that  the  eggs  be  handled  gently.  As  to 
method  of  turning,  it  is  usually  well  to  follow  directions  of 
the  incubator  maker.  The  eggs  should  be  turned  twice  a 
day.  Three  turnings  have  given  good  results. 

Cooling  the  Eggs. — A  slight  cooling  of  the  eggs  each 
day  after  the  second  day  is  necessary.  In  cool  weather, 
or  when  the  temperature  of  the  incubator  room  is  lower 
than  60  degrees,  little  more  cooling  will  be  needed  than  in 
the  time  the  eggs  are  being  turned  on  top  of  machine.  In 
warmer  weather  and  toward  the  end  of  the  hatch  further 
cooling  is  advisable.  The  amount  of  cooling  given  by  the 
sitting  hen  to  the  eggs  was  determined  at  the  Oregon  Station 


METHODS  OF  HATCHING  CHICKENS  317 

by  means  of  a  minimum  thermometer  in  a  glass  bottle  filled 
with  water.  In  29  tests  under  five  sitting  hens  the  average 
cooling  temperature  was  88.9  degrees.  The  lowest  was  81 
degrees.  This  represented  the  temperature  of  the  interior 
of  the  eggs  after  the  hen  had  been  oif  the  nest.  Tests  made 
in  incubators  with  the  same  instrument  showed  an  average 
of  94.3  degrees,  with  usual  methods  of  cooling.  The  tests 
were  made  in  summer  and  the  eggs  were  left  out  of  the 
machine  about  half  an  hour. 

An  instrument  of  this  kind  may  be  used  to  advantage 
by  the  incubator  operator  as  a  guide  for  cooling. 

Carbonic  Acid  Gas  and  Chick  Development. — The 
hatching  of  the  chick  is  a  most  marvelous  thing.  ,The  shell 
is  the  preserver  of  the  egg.  "Without  it  the  egg  could  not 
be  kept  wholesome  more  than  a  day  or  two.  It  also  pro- 
tects the  germ  of  the  chick  from  destruction.  When  it 
comes  to  hatching,  the  shell  is  an  obstacle.  The  chick  be- 
fore it  can  hatch  and  gain  its  liberty  must  devise  some 
means  by  which  it  can  break  down  this  prison  wall.  It 
must  grow  a  strong  body,  and  it  does  it  by  making  use  of 
its  enemy,  the  shell.  To  break  through  the  shell  it  must 
put  some  of  the  shell  into  its  body,  otherwise  it  would  not 
be  strong  enough  to  hammer  down  the  wall. 

How  does  it  turn  this  enemy  into  an  ally?  By  another 
miracle,  making  use  of  another  enemy — a  poison.  A  poison 
that  would  kill  the  chick — that  is  deadly  to  any  living 
animal — the  chick  uses  in  obtaining  nutriment  and  in  break- 
ing down  its  prison  walls.  A  death-dealing  poison  under 
the  operation  of  this  chicken  chemistry  is  made  to  manu- 
facture something  that  gives  to  the  chick  strength  and  a 
right  to  live.  Nature  has  decreed  that  fresh  air  is  neces- 
sary for  the  growing  embryo,  and  while  the  shell  protects 
the  contents  and  prevents  the  entrance  of  disease  germs 
and  parasites,  it  admits  air.  As  fresh  air  enters  impure 


318  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

air  is  given  off,  and  in  passing  out  of  the  shell  these  im- 
purities aid  in  its  decomposition;  they  dissolve  certain  food 
in  the  shell,  mineral  nutrients,  that  the  chick  uses  in  the 
growth  of  its  body,  and  without  which  it  would  not  come 
to  life.  The  impurities  or  poisons  are  contained  in  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas  given  off  by  the  chick,  or  exhaled  by  the 
lungs.  This  thing  that  poisons  the  body  is  used  by  the 
chick  to  dissolve  the  mineral  elements  of  the  shell  needed 
in  the  growth  of  its  body.  The  shell  is  honeycombed,  so 
to  speak,  by  this  gas  that  has  been  cast  off  by  the  chick, 
and  the  dissolved  elements  pass  into  its'body.  Without  the 
lime  extracted  from  the  shell  the  chick  would  not  have  the 
strength  to  break  through  the  shell,  or  breaking  through 
would  not  have  vitality  to  live. 

More  than  that,  the  chick  utilizes  materials  in  the  shell 
itself  for  arming  itself  with  a  weapon  concealed  on  the 
point  of  its  beak  to  puncture  a  hole  in  its  prison  wall  and 
escape. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  has  an  important  function  to  perform 
in  the  development  of  the  embryonic  life  of  the  chick.  A 
healthy,  strong-growing  embryo  is  giving  off  considerable 
quantities  of  this  gas,  and  this  gas  in  passing  through  the 
pores  of  the  shell  dissolves  the  necessary  minerals  for  the 
nutrition  of  the  chick.  As  the  chick  grows  there  is  an  in- 
crease in  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  thrown  off.  Analysis 
showed  more  carbon  dioxide  in  the  incubator  in  the  later 
stages  of  incubation  than  in  the  first.  Analysis  further 
showed  more  carbon  dioxide  under  the  sitting  hen  than  in 
the  incubator.  There  was  a  large  amount  found  under  the 
hen  when  sitting  on  glass  or  china  eggs,  which  led  to  the 
discovery  that  carbon  dioxide  was  being  diffused  through 
the  skin  of  the  hen's  body. 

It  has  not  yet  been  determined  whether  the  same  quantity 
of  carbon  dioxide  must  be  present  in  the  incubator  as  under 


METHODS   OF   HATCHING  CHICKENS  319 

the  hen  for  successful  hatching,  but  experiments  at  Utah 
in  supplying  artificially  a  large  quantity  of  this  gas  rather 
injured  than  improved  the  hatching  of  the  incubator.  This 
has  been  corroborated  by  experiments  at  Storrs.  It  has 
not  been  proved  that  an  artificial  supply  of  carbon  dioxide 
will  help  matters. 

Oil  on  Egg  Shells. — Investigation  at  the  Oregon  Station 
(Bulletin  100)  has  revealed  another  point  in  which  it  is 
difficult  to  imitate  nature.  It  was  discovered  that  the  shells 
of  eggs  under  the  sitting  hens  contain  a  considerable 
quantity  of  oil.  A  fresh  unincubated  egg  contained  a  small 
quantity  of  oil,  but  eggs  that  had  been  under  the  sitting  hen 
for  two  weeks  contained  six  times  more  oil,  while  the  eggs 
that  had  been  in  the  incubator  contained  practically  the 
same  amount  as  fresh  eggs,  proving  that  oil  was  deposited  on 
the  eggs  by  the  hen.  What  the  function  of  this  oil  is  in  in- 
cubation, is  not  yet  known. 

Whatever  may  be  the  practical  result,  it  is  thus  seen  that 
the  sitting  hen  is  slowly  giving  up  some  of  her  secrets  to 
scientific  research. 


CHAPTER  XV 

ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 

Artificial  Brooding  of  chicks  means  furnishing  them 
with  proper  temperature  conditions  by  either  natural  or 
artificial  heat  during  the  stage  of  their  growth  when  the 
heat  of  their  bodies  is  not  sufficient  to  maintain  life.  After 
they  pass  the  age  when  they  no  longer  require  extra  heat, 
the  term  brooding  does  not  apply. 

The  Length  of  the  Brooding  Period  is  about  six  weeks. 
The  period  varies,  depending  somewhat  on  the  season  of 
the  year,  or  the  weather.  Successful  brooding  depends 
very  largely  upon  so  adjusting  the  brooder  temperature 
that  the  chicks  are  able  to  do  without  artificial  heat  at  the 
earliest  possible  stage.  The  temperature  must  be  gradually 
lowered,  so  that  the  chick  becomes  gradually  accustomed  to 
colder  air. 

Brooding  Temperature. — The  chick  is  hatched  in  the 
incubator  at  a  temperature  of  103  degrees.  Before  it  is 
taken  out  of  the  incubator,  which  should  be  within  a  day 
after  the  hatch  is  completed  and  the  chick  dry,  this  tem- 
perature should  be  reduced.  The  nursery  under  the  egg 
tray  is  several  degrees  colder  than  the  hatching  tempera- 
ture. The  incubator  should  be  kept  at  a  temperature  of 
about  100  degrees  until  the  chicks  are  removed,  but  extra 
ventilation  should  be  given.  After  the  chicks  are  all  hatched 
and  dry  the  door  of  the  incubator  should  be  left  partly 
open  to  furnish  sufficient  fresh  air.  The  width  of  the  open- 
ing will  depend  upon  the  temperature  of  the  incubator 
room.  The  best  guide  is  the  behavior  of  the  chicks  them- 

320 


ARTIFICIAL  BROODING  321 

selves.  The  skilled  attendant  knows  from  the  appearance 
of  the  chicks  whether  or  not  they  have  both  heat  and  fresh 
air  enough.  If  the  chicks  pant,  the  temperature  is  too  high 
or  the  ventilation  is  insufficient.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
temperature  is  too  low  they  will  crowd  together.  It  will 
be  found -that  this  is  the  only  safe  guide  to  follow  in  regu- 
lating the  temperature  and  ventilation  of  the  brooders.  It 
is  impossible  to  raise  chicks  successfully  where  the  chicks 
are  not  comfortable  at  all  times,  or  where  the  temperature 
is  allowed  to  go  too  high  or  too  low  at  any  time. 

The  brooder  should  be  thoroughly  warmed  up  before 
putting  the  chicks  into  it.  The  temperature  should  be 
about  95  degrees  about  an  inch  from  the  floor  before  the 
chicks  are  put  in.  There  should  be  a  gradual  daily  lower- 
ing of  the  temperature  until  at  the  end  of  about  four  weeks 
it  should  be  about  75  degrees,  at  which  temperature  it 
should  be  kept  for  two  or  three  weeks,  when  artificial  heat 
may  be  discontinued.  There  should  be  always  sufficient 
heat  during  the  day  so  that  the  chick  when  it  gets  cold 
may  go  to  the  hover  or  heater  and  get  warmed  quickly. 
If  the  temperature  is  too  low  they  will  get  chilled  and 
crowd  together.  The  safe  plan  is  to  furnish  sufficient  heat 
so  that  the  chicks  will  not  crowd,  but  at  the  same  time  it  is 
important  that  they  have  room  to  get  away  from  the  heat. 
They  should  have  access  to  cool  air  as  well  as  warm  air. 

The  brooder  temperature  will  vary  some  according  to 
the  style  of  the  brooder.  With  bottom  heat  the  brooder 
floor  will  show  a  higher  temperature,  but  an  inch  above  the 
temperature  should  be  lower  than  in  a  brooder  with  top 
heat.  But  the  guide  for  the  attendant  should,  in  all  cases, 
be  the  comfort  of  the  chicks.  If  the  chicks  do  not  suffer 
at  any  time  from  either  too  much  or  too  little  heat  there 
will  be  little  danger  of  a  high  mortality,  if  other  conditions 
are  right,  and  if  chicks  of  good  vitality  are  put  into  the 


322  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

brooder.  A  too  high  or  a  too  low  temperature  will  result 
in  an  inevitable  loss  of  chicks,  which  may  extend  over  a 
period  of  several  weeks,  and  also  in  weakened  vitality  in 
some  that  live.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  when 
chicks  have  once  been  overheated  their  powers  of  re- 
sistance have  been  weakened  and  they  will  be  unable  to 
stand  the  same  degree  of  cold  as  others  that  have  been  kept 
under  proper  temperature  conditions. 

Training  the  Chicks. — In  artificial  brooding  the  at- 
tendant must  do  the  training  that  in  natural  brooding  is 
done  by  the  hen.  Success  will  depend  very  largely  upon 
the  attention  given  to  the  chicks  during  the  first  two  or 
three  days  of  their  brooder  life.  The  chick  for  the  first 
two  days  does  not  know  where  to  find  the  heat  if  it  should 
get  out  from  under  the  hover.  It  must  be  taught.  By  fre- 
quently pushing  the  chicks  toward  the  heat  they  will  soon 
learn  to  find  it.  They  should  be  taught  to  leave  the  hover  and 
seek  the  cooler  fresh  air  occasionally  for  a  time.  They  should 
be  "kept  going"  between  the  heat  and  the  cold  for  the  first 
two  or  three  days.  At  any  rate,  this  training  should  be 
done  several  times  a  day  for  the  first  two  days,  and  under 
no  conditions  should  they  be  allowed  to  remain  away  from 
the  heat  until  they  begin  to  peep  and  crowd  against  each 
other  for  warmth.  This  is  fatal.  A  little  time  spent,  or  a 
little  "puttering,"  for  the  first  two  days  will  save  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  and  loss  later. 

Ventilation. — Where  fifty  or  a  hundred  chicks  are  kept 
together  in  a  brooder,  that  means  a  great  many  lungs  call- 
ing for  fresh  air  or  oxygen.  They  need  a  little  ventilation 
at  the  start,  but  comparatively  little  to  what  they  require 
as  they  grow  older.  Ventilation  as  well  as  temperature 
must  be  elastic  or  progressive.  Every  day  there  is  an  in- 
creased demand  for  fresh  air.  A  mistake  is  often  made 
in  cutting  off  on  the  heat  as  the  chicks  grow  older,  instead 


ARTIFICIAL  BROODING  323 

of  increasing  the  ventilation.  The  temperature  of  the 
brooder  may  be  lowered  by  increasing  the  ventilation  or 
admitting  more  cool  fresh  air,  and  it  is  just  as  important 
that  the  fresh  air  be  increased  as  that  the  brooder  tempera- 
ture be  decreased. 

Floor  of  the  Brooder. — The  brooder  floor  should  be 
covered  an  inch  deep  with  clean  sand.  (See  "Feeding  the 
Chicks.")  In  two  or  three  days  when  the  chicks  have 
learned  to  eat  well,  a  little  chaff  or  cut  clover  or  alfalfa 
may  be  covered  over  the  sand  for  the  chicks  to  scratch  in. 
It  is  well  to  begin  with  the  sand. 

Sunlight. — Whatever  type  of  brooder  is  used  it  should 
be  accessible  to  the  sunlight.  Disease  germs  do  not  thrive 
or  multiply  when  exposed  to  the  sunshine. 

Types  of  Brooders. — There  are  many  types  of  brooders 
in  use,  and  each  year  sees  a  new  crop  of  them.  If  some 
of  the  chicks  die,  the  brooder  is  very  likely  to  be  blamed, 
and  the  next  year  another  is  tried.  There  is,  as  yet,  a  con- 
siderable divergence  of  opinion  as  to  what  constitutes  the 
best  type.  All  the  sundry  makes  of  brooders  may  be 
divided  into  the  following  classes : 

1.  Individual  lamp  brooder,  indoor  and  outdoor. 

2.  Colony  brooder. 

3.  Hot  water  pipe  brooder. 

4.  Room  or  stove  brooder,  with  or  without  hovers. 

5.  Terra  cotta  brooder. 

6.  Electric  brooder. 

7.  Fire!  ess  brooder. 

The  Lamp  Brooder. — There  are  various  types  of  lamp 
brooders.  Some  of  these  are  made  for  outdoors  and  some 
for  indoors  use.  There  is  more  or  less  danger  from  fire 
from  the  lamp,  and  proper  care  should  be  given  it  to  avoid 
burning  the  brooder  and  chicks.  It  is  usually  neglect 


324  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

where  -a  fire  occurs.  Individual  lamp  brooders  range  in 
capacity  from  about  fifty  to  one  hundred  chicks. 

Colony  Brooders. — The  colony  brooder  has  many  ad- 
vantages over  other  systems  of  brooding.  It  is  not  only  a 
brooder  but  a  growing  house  for  the  chicks  after  passing 
the  brooding  stage;  it  is  in  use  most  of  the  year.  An  in- 
dividual lamp  brooder  can  be  used  only  for  a  few  weeks, 
then  a  house  must  be  provided  for  the  growing  chicks.  The 
colony  brooding  system  is  less  expensive  in  equipment.  A 
good  type  of  colony  brooder  is  shown  in  illustration  of  the 
Cornell  gasolene  brooder.  This  has  a  capacity  of  two 
hundred  chicks.  The  cost  for  heating  by  gasolene  amounts 
to  from  2  to  10  cents  a  day,  depending  on  the  weather  con- 
ditions. The  cost  to  build  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  $36. 

A  colony  brooder  may  be  heated  by  coal  oil  lamps. 
Lamps  may  be  placed  inside  or  outside  the  house  and  a  de- 
tachable hover  used  inside. 

A  Hot  Water  Jug  may  be  used  to  furnish  heat  in  a 
colony  brooder  and  other  brooders.  A  gallon  jug,  filled  with 
hot  water  twice  a  day  will  furnish  heat  enough  under  a 
hover  2  feet  square  for  fifty  chicks.  This  is  a  fireless  but 
not  a  heatless  brooder.  Two  such  jugs  and  hovers  in  a 
colony  house  6x8  feet  will  take  care  of  100  chicks. 

A  "Fireless  and  Henless"  Brooder. — Sometimes  it  is  de- 
sirable to  rear  hen-hatched  chicks  in  a  brooder  without  the 
hen.  We  give  an  illustration  of  a  home-made  brooder  on 
page  325.  It  is  made  out  of  a  dry-goods  box,  a  little  burlap 
or  flannel,  and  a  gallon  vinegar  jug.  The  box  may  be  3  to 
4  feet  long,  2%  feet  deep  and  2y2  feet  wide,  set  on  edge. 
Larger  sized  boxes,  however,  may  be  used.  The  hover 
should  be  about  2  feet  square,  high  enough  to  put  the  jug 
under  it.  Strips  of  burlap  about  4  inches  wide  are  tacked 
on  to  the  under  side  of  the  hover  top,  which  is  made  of 
plain  matched  boards.  These  strips  hang  down  all  over 


ARTIFICIAL  BROODING  325 

the  chicks,  not  merely  around  the  edges  of  the  hover,  and 
the  chicks  nestle  among  the  strips  of  cloth.  The  jug  is 
filled  with  hot  water  and  placed  underneath  in  the  center 
of  the  hover.  If  the  water  is  too  hot  a  little  felt  should  be 
wrapped  around  the  jug  to  avoid  burning  the  chicks.  This 
will  also  help  to  retain  the  heat  longer. 

During  the  first  week,  the  jug  should  be  refilled  night  and 
morning.     As  the  chicks  grow  older,  once  a  day  will  be 


HOT-WATER   JUG   BROODER 
A  dry  goods  box,  a  hover  and  a  gallon  jug  of  hot  water. 

often  enough.  In  warm  weather  the  jug  may  be  dispensed 
with  when  the  chicks  are  two  weeks  old.  Later,  the  hover 
may  be  removed  and  the  box  used  for  brooding  the  chicks 
till  they  are  about  three  months  old.  This  brooder  will 
take  care  of  fifty  chicks  easily.  They  should  be  given 
more  room  when  two  or  three  months  old.  In  such  a 
brooder,  with  felt  or  burlap  strips  hanging  over  the 
chicks,  it  requires  very  little  artificial  heat  to  keep  them 
warm,  as  they  keep  themselves  pretty  comfortable  when 
all  are  close  together  under  the  hover.  Such  a  brooder  may 
be  used  for  both  hen-hatched  and  incubator  chicks.  Fire- 


326  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

less  brooders  of  this  kind  will  rear  chicks  successfully,  but 
a  fireless  brooder  without  heat  of  any  kind  is  not  practicable. 
If  the  weather  is  not  too  cold  and  the  chicks  have  close  at- 
tention the  heatless  brooder  may  raise  chicks  successfully, 
but  the  labor  cost  is  great. 

Long  Hot- Water  Pipe  Brooders. — Where  large  num- 
bers of  chicks  are  hatched  at  one  time  this  is  probably  the 
most  convenient  way  of  brooding  them.  A  heater  is  located 
at  one  end  of  the  house,  and  from  this  hot-water  pipes  run 


CONTINUOUS  BROODING  SYSTEM 
(Courtesy  Kansas  Experiment   Station.) 

the  length  of  the  house  under  hover  but  over  the  chicks. 
A  brooder  house  a  hundred  feet  in  length  or  more  may  be 
heated  in  this  way.  This  method  has  been  largely  used  in 
the  production  of  broilers.  The  main  objection  to  this 
system  is  the  cost  of  equipment.  Where  the  purpose  is  to 
raise  pullets  for  fall  laying,  the  chickens  have  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  other  houses  later. 

Experience  has  shown  that  it  is  not  practicable  to  use 
this  type  of  brooder  house  as  a  growing  house  for  pullets. 
Pullets  do  better  when  put  in  open-air  houses  and  given 
free  range.  With  a  brooder  house  of  this  kind  it  will  pay 


ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 


327 


to  transfer  the  chickens  to  free  range  in  open  houses,  where 
the  purpose  is  to  produce  breeding  stock  or  layers.  "When 
this  is  done  the  cost  of  producing  the  mature  pullet  is 
greater  than  is  necessary.  The  colony  brooding  house 
system  is  more  economical. 

Stove  or  Room  Brooding. — This  system  is  used  where 
large  numbers  of  chicks  are  hatched.      A    specially  con- 


ROOM    OF    STOVE    BROODING— A    NIGHT    SCENE 

At    a   certain    radius   from    the    stove    the    chicks    find    the    proper   temperature. 
(Oregon  Station.) 

structed  oil-burner  stove  set  in  the  center  of  a  room  about 
20  x  20  feet,  furnishes  the  heat  for  1,000  chicks  or  more. 
Sometimes  a  coal-burning  stove  is  used.  There  are  no  par- 
titions or  hovers.  The  heat  is  regulated  so  that  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  2  feet  from  the  stove,  and  in  a  circle  around 
it,  the  chicks  find  a  proper  brooding  temperature.  Closer 
it  is  too  hot,  farther  away,  too  cold.  At  night  the  chicks 
cover  a  space  of  about  12  inches  wide  and  2  feet  from  the 


328  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

stove.     During  the  day  they  run  all  around  the  room  and 
get  exercise  in  that  way. 

During  the  first  few  nights  a  "fence"  12  inches  high, 
made  of  poultry  netting  covered  with  burlap,  is  placed  in 
a  circle  around  the  stove,  but  several  feet  farther  away 
from  the  stove  than  the  chicks.  This  keeps  the  floor  a  little 
warmer  and  prevents  the  chicks  getting  into  the  corners  of 
the  room.  Among  the  advantages  of  this  system  is  con- 
venience of  operation  and  saving  of  labor.  The  oil  is  fed 


A  STOVE  BROODER  WITH  HOVER 

automatically  to  the  burner  from  a  tank  on  the  outside 
wall,  and  it  requires  very  little  attention.  Occasionally  the 
soot  clogs  up  the  burner,  and  sometimes  the  stovepipe  will 
burn  out,  with  some  danger  of  setting  fire  to  the  house. 
Should  the  heat  for  any  reason  be  shut  off,  there  will  be  a 
large  mortality  where  so  many  chicks  are  kept  together. 
This  system  has  not  given  the  results  in  growth  of  chicks 
that  is  desirable  in  a  good  brooding  system. 

A  Room  Brooder  with  Hover. — A  modification  of  the 
room  brooding  system  is  to  substitute  for  the  stove  in  the 
center  of  the  room  a  gasolene  or  distillate  heater  placed  in 
a  lean-to  and  lower  than  the  floor.  From  this  a  hot-air 


ARTIFICIAL  BROODING 


329 


flue  conveys  the  heat  under  the  floor  and  up  through  an 
opening  in  the  center  of  the  room.  A  hover  6  or  7  feet 
square  is  set  in  the  center  of  the  room  and  over  the  hot-air 
inlet.  This  system  is  more  satisfactory  than  the  stove 
heater  without  the  hover  and  is  much  more  economical  in 


A  STOVE  BROODER,  SHOWING  HOVER  AND  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF 

BROODER 


fuel  or  oil.  A  thousand  chicks  may  be  brooded  in  such  a 
brooder  house  with  this  system  of  heating  and  hovering. 
The  main  contention,  however,  remains  unsolved  as  to 
whether  it  is  possible  to  raise  chicks  as  successfully  in 
flocks  as  large  as  1,000  in  one  room  as  in  smaller  flocks. 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  as  the  numbers  in  the  flock  in- 
crease the  tendency  is  for  the  mortality  to  increase  and  for 


330  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


ROOM    BROODING,    WITH    OIL    OR    GAS    HEATER,     OUTSIDE    OF 

ROOM  IN  A  LEAN-TO 

Heat  comes  up  through  the  floor,  under  the  hover,   which  is  shown  raised  in 

the  picture. 


FLOCK  OF  8,000  YOUNG  PULLETS 
Farm  of  J.  W.  George,  Petaluma. 


ARTIFICIAL   BROODING 


331 


a  retarded  growth. 
Whether  the  differ- 
ence is  great  enough 
to  warrant  the  extra 
labor  cost  involved  in 
keeping  them  in  small 
flocks,  is  open  to 
doubt.  Where  sev- 
eral thousand  chicks 
are  hatched,  the  old 
system  o  f  keeping 
them  in  flocks  of 
fifty  is  hardly  prac- 
ticable on  account  of 
the  labor  cost  as  well 
as  equipment  cost. 

Brooding  Systems 
in  General. — It  should 
be  understood  by  the 
poultryman  that  the 
brooder  is  not  always 
responsible  for  chick 
mortality.  The 
chicks  die  sometimes 
in  spite  of  the  brood- 
er. If  they  do,  the 
poultryman  should 
not  conclude  at  once 
that  the  brooder  is 
wrong  and  proceed  to 
purchase  or  build  a 
new  one.  It  has  been 
abundantly  demon- 
strated that  the 


CORNELL  GASOLINE  BROODER 


332 


POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 


chicks  often  come  to  the  brooder  with  vitality  so 
low  that  it  is  impossible  to  raise  them.  The  trouble 
may  have  been  in  faulty  methods  of  incubation,  or  it  may 
be  traced  back  to  a  lack  of  vigor  in  the  breeding  stock  that 
laid  the  eggs.  A  simple  experiment  of  setting  a  few  hens 
at  the  time  the  incubators  are  set,  using  the  same  kind  of 
eggs  and  brooding  the  chicks  naturally,  will  show  whether 
the  fault  was  in  the  breeding  stock  or  not. 


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SIDE  END 

TERRA-COTTA  BROODER 

This  brooder  has  been  largely  used  by  the   Petaluma  poultry  raisers.      Besides 
being   cheaply   constructed,   it   is   economical    in    fuel. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

MARKETING  EGGS  AND  POULTRY 

During  the  past  few  years  considerable  attention  has 
been  directed  to  the  importance  of  improved  methods  of 
marketing  poultry  products.  This  is  a  subject  that  con- 
cerns the  consumer  as  well  as  the  producer.  To  the  former 
it  is  a  question  of  how  to  get  eggs  and  chickens  of  good 
quality  and  at  prices  he  can  afford  to  pay.  To  the  pro- 
ducer it  is  a  question  of  handling  the  eggs  and  marketing 
them  in  such  a  way  that  he  can  get  a  satisfactory  profit. 
Improved  methods  of  marketing  would  mean  a  larger  busi- 
ness, as  well  as  a  more  profitable  one,  because  there  would 
be  a  much  greater  consumption  of  eggs  and  chickens  if  the 
consumer  could  always  be  assured  of  their  good  quality. 
The  poultry-keeper  is  vitally  interested  in  anything  that 
will  increase  the  consumption  of  poultry  and  eggs  and  also 
in  anything  that  will  enable  him,  through  better  handling 
of  the  product,  to  get  it  to  the  consumer  in  a  condition  that 
will  bring  him  a  higher  profit. 

The  poultryman  must  not  give  less  attention  to  produc- 
tion, but  he  must  give  more  earnest  attention  to  efficiency 
in  marketing  if  he  would  not  lose  what  he  may  have  gained 
in  efficiency  in  production.  It  is  one  thing  to  produce  the 
chickens  and  the  eggs,  it  is  another  to  get  value  for  them. 
There  is  a  pleasure  in  producing  a  superior  article,  but  the 
producer  measures  his  success  finally  by  the  market  returns. 

MARKETING  EGGS 

Two  factors  that  the  poultryman  must  consider  in  seek- 
ing a  good  market  for  his  eggs  are  quality  and  quantity, 

333 


334  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

in  other  words  the  two  Q's.  If  he  has  both  Q's  there  is  no 
reason  why  he  may  not  develop  a  special  market  and  reap 
a  special  profit.  A  few  cents  difference  in  the  price  received 
for  his  eggs  may  not  amount  to  much  in  the  course  of  a 
week  or  a  month,  but  in  the  course  of  a  year,  if  he  has  only 
a  hundred  hens,  the  difference  between  a  good  and  a  poor 
market  would  amount  to  probably  $50,  or  50  cents  per  hen ; 
or  $500  on  a  thousand  hens.  This  represents  an  increase 
of  20  or  25%.  The  great  majority,  however,  of  the  pro- 
ducers do  not  keep  one  hundred  hens.  The  average  farm 
flock  is  about  50  hens,  and  there  is  not  much  incentive  for 
the  owner  to  work  out  better  marketing  methods. 

In  the  first  place  he  has  not  the  quantity  of  eggs  to  make 
regular  shipments.  He  cannot  go  to  a  dealer  or  retailer  or 
to  private  consumers  and  guarantee  a  certain  number  of 
cases  a  week  or  twice  a  week.  He  may  produce  the  quality, 
but  without  the  quantity  it  will  not  profit  him  much.  On 
the  other  hand  he  may  have  the  quantity,  but  not  the  qual- 
ity, and  he  will  lose  a  large  part  of  his  profits.  The  pro- 
ducer cannot  expect  the  highest  prices  unless  he  has  in  ad- 
dition to  quantity  the  quality  that  will  command  them. 

The  problem  of  marketing  is  a  simple  one  to  the  pro- 
ducer who  has  a  large  flock,  but  to  the  small  producer  it  is 
a  difficult  one,  though  the  small  producer  in  the  aggregate 
furnishes  the  great  bulk  of  the  poultry  products  of  the 
country.  The  producers  are  suffering  a  loss  in  marketing 
the  product  of  probably  20  to  25%,  or  anywhere  from  fifty 
to  a  hundred  million  dollars  a  year  in  the  United  States, 
because  they  individually  have  neither  the  quantity  nor  the 
quality  to  interest  them  in  better  marketing  methods.  They 
lack  the  two  Q  's.  Is  this  loss  inevitable  ?  Not  necessarily. 

Where  is  the  remedy,  if  there  be  any  ?  In  the  first  place, 
the  remedy  is  largely  educational.  The  trouble  has  been 
located  and  the  remedy  is  known ;  it  is  a  question  of  apply- 


MARKETING  EGGS   AND   POULTRY  335 

ing  it.  A  study  must  be  made  of  egg  quality.  The  differ- 
ence in  quality  of  eggs  and  the  factors  affecting  the  quality 
must  be  clearly  demonstrated  to  the  producer  and  con- 
sumer alike.  When  the  former  understands  fully  that  the 
egg  is  a  perishable  product  and  that  15  to  20%  of  the  real 
value  of  the  egg  is  lost  in  the  handling  under  present 
marketing  methods ;  in  other  words,  that  the  quality  of  the 
egg  varies  to  this  extent,  it  will  not  be  very  long  before  the 
producer  sets  about  rectifying  this  great  marketing  blunder. 
He  will  set  about  improving  the  quality. 

In  the  next  place  there  must  be  developed  a  greater  com- 
munity of  interest  among  the  producers,  in  other  words,  co- 
operation. If  the  business  is  going  to  continue  to  be  a  busi- 
ness of  small  producers  it  is  imperative  that  they  get  to- 
gether to  the  extent  at  least  that  regular  guaranteed  ship- 
ments may  be  made  in  sufficient  quantity,  if  the  direct 
method  of  selling  is  to  be  followed. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  indirect  method  is  to  be  fol- 
lowed, that  is,  selling  the  product  through  dealers  instead 
of  shipping  direct  to  consumers,  then  the  producers  should 
co-operate  to  the  extent  of  compelling  the  dealers  to  modify 
or  reform  their  methods  of  buying.  Egg  production  is  a 
part  of  a  well  regulated  system  of  diversified  farming,  and 
if  this  system  of  farming  is  to  be  permanently  successful 
there  must  be  a  greater  community  of  interest  developed. 

Indirect  Selling. — Two  distinct  methods  are  followed  in 
marketing  poultry  products.  They  may  be  called  direct  and 
indirect.  The  indirect  route  varies  somewhat  in  length 
or  efficiency.  Shipping  to  the  retailer  comes  nearest 
to  the  direct  method  in  efficiency.  The  most  indirect  way 
is  where  the  producer  sells  to  the  huckster,  the  huckster  to 
the  local  store  or  shipper ;  the  latter  to  the  commission  man 
in  the  city,  who  sells  to  the  jobber,  and  the  jobber  to  the 
retailer,  the  eggs  finally  reaching  the  consumer  from  the 


336  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND  MANAGEMENT 

retailer.  That  means  five  middlemen.  Some  of  these  mid- 
dlemen, however,  have  been  eliminated  in  many  markets. 

By  far  the  largest  proportion  of  eggs  reach  the  consumer 
by  the  indirect  route.  The  reason  is  largely  because  the 
community  of  interest  or  co-operative  spirit  is  not  highly 
developed  among  the  farmers  or  producers.  It  is  fair  to 
say  that  during  the  past  two  or  three  years  considerable 
progress  has  been  made  in  improving  the  service  and  lessen- 
ing the  cost  of  marketing  eggs  by  the  direct  as  well  as  in- 
direct method.  The  business  of  buying  eggs  on  commission 
and  the  abuses  that  followed  have  been  largely  eliminated 
in  most  of  the  large  markets.  The  bulk  of  the  business  is 
now  done  by  large  jobbers.  The  service  has  been  improved 
and  the  cost  of  marketing  reduced.  Many  of  these  jobbers 
have  large  storage  plants,  which  afford  an  outlet  for  sur- 
plus stock  during  the  season  of  plenty. 

How  the  Costs  are  Added. — The  tabular  exhibit  on 
page  337  shows  how,  through  -the  indirect  method,  the  costs 
are  added  to  the  egg  in  New  York  City  before  it  reaches  the 
consumer.  It  is  taken  from  a  report  of  a  State  Food  In- 
vestigating Commission. 

The  cost  of  marketing  is  here  shown  to  be  over  50%  of 
the  amount  received  by  the  producer.  This  would  not  apply 
to  all  markets ;  the  cost  would  be  less  in  some.  In  a  western 
state  on  July  30,  farmers  were  receiving  22y2  cents  a  dozen 
in  trade  from  the  local  stores,  or  21  cents  in  cash.  The 
local  stores  received  22^  cents  from  the  jobbers  after  pay- 
ing express  charges  to  the  city  one  hundred  miles  distant. 
The  retailer  paid  the  jobber  27  cents,  and  the  retailer  sold 
the  eggs  to  the  consumer  at  30  cents  to  35  cents,  depending 
on  the  grade.  Good  eggs  that  the  producer  received  21 
cents  for  were  sold  to  the  consumer  for  35  cents.  Eggs 
from  another  producer  that  were  not  as  good  were  paid  for 
at  the  same  rate,  21  cents,  but  were  finally  sold  to  the  con- 
sumer for  30  cents. 


MARKETING  EGGS   AND   POULTRY  337 

ANALYSIS  OF   RETAIL  PRICE  OF  EGGS   IN   NEW  YORK   CITY 

Per  dozen 

Producer's  price $0.20         $0.20 

Shipper's  charges : 

(a)  Labor  in  collection  and  packing 005 

(b)  Cases,  fillers,  and  packing 0073 

(c)  Transportation  charges  to  city 0106         .023 

Commission  for  handling 01  .01 

Jobber's  charges: 

(a)  Cartage  from  dock  to  store 00133 

(b)  Candling  and  grading 00666 

(c)  Storage  and  insurance 016 

(d)  Jobber's  profit  and  charges 01 

(e)  Delivery  to  the  retailer 004          .038 

Retailer's  charges : 

(a)   Operating  expenses,  10% 0271 

(6)   Retailer  profit,  5% 01497       .042 


Price  paid  by  consumer $0.313 

By  direct  marketing  is  meant  selling  direct  to  the  con- 
sumer by  the  producer,  or  an  association  of  producers,  and 
indirect  marketing  is  the  method  followed  where  the  eggs 
pass  through  the  hands  of  one  or  more  middlemen  after 
leaving  the  farm  and  before  reaching  the  consumer. 

Direct  Selling. — The  most  profit  will  be  made  by  ship-' 
ping  direct  to  consumers,  in  this  way  eliminating  all  mid- 
dlemen charges.  The  producer  should  endeavor  to  establish 
a  trade  with  city  customers.  It  is  possible  to  furnish  the 
consumer  eggs  of  first  quality  at  prices  lower  than  he  pays 
for  eggs  of  the  same  quality  through  the  regular  channels 
of  trade,  and  at  the  same  time  secure  a  better  price  than  he 
could  otherwise  secure. 

This  was  demonstrated  by  the  poultry  department  of  the 
Oregon  Agricultural  College.  For  better  eggs  than  he  for- 
merly got  for  35  cents  a  dozen  the  consumer  paid  the  pro- 


338 


POULTRY   BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


ducer  27  cents,  plus  express,  which  was  about  3  cents  a 
dozen.  This  was  a  gain  of  6  cents  to  the  farmer  over  the 
usual  method  of  selling  to  local  stores,  and  a  saving  to  the 
consumer  of  5  cents  a  dozen.  The  eggs  were  shipped  in 
crates  of  12  dozen.  Some  of  the  customers  divided  the 
eggs  with  their  neighbors ;  others  used  them  all,  though  they 
had  to  keep  some  of  them  two  or  three  weeks.  At  the  end 
of  that  time  they  reported  that  the  eggs  were  better  than 

those  purchased  at 
stores.  This  is  a  trade 
worth  looking  after. 
The  disadvantag- 
es of  direct  selling 
are,  first,  that  the 
express  charges  op- 
erate against  ship- 
ping in  small  quan- 
tities. The  express 
charges  on  a!2-dozen 
case  may  be  about  as 
much  as  on  a  30-doz- 
en  case,  and  two 
cases  of  30  dozen  may  be  shipped  at  the  same  cost  prac- 
tically as  one  case.  If  the  express  charges  were  to  be  fixed 
at  so  much  a  dozen,  irrespective  of  the  size  of  crate  or  num- 
ber of  dozens  shipped,  it  would  encourage  the  extension  of 
direct  shipment.  As  now,  the  rates  make  it  an  object  for 
the  farmer  who  has  good  eggs  to  sell  to  take  them  to  the 
local  shipper  at  the  same  price  another  farmer  gets  who  has 
poor  eggs  to  sell,  because  the  local  shipper  can  ship  the  eggs 
at  less  cost  than  the  individual  farmer  on  account  of  be- 
ing able  to  make  larger  shipments. 

Second,  there  will  be  times  when  the  producer  will  have 


A    12-DOZEN    CRATE 

This  crate  may  be  used  for  shipping  eggs  to 
consumers  by  express  or  parcel  post,  direct  from 
the  farm. 


MARKETING   EGGS   AND   POULTRY  339 

a  surplus  of  eggs  that  he  has  no  regular  customers  for ;  then 

there  will  also  be 
culls.  For  these  he 
must  find  another 
market.  These 
would  usually  have 
to  be  marketed 
through  the  indirect 
way.  Third,  there 
there  would  be  the 
cost  of  collection,  or 
the  probable  loss 
from  bad  accounts. 
A  ROASTER  By  requiring  a  bank 

Showing  method  of  packing  in  a  parcel  post  package,    reference,     <>r     Other 

satisfactory      refer- 
ence, there  would  be  little  probability  of  loss. 

Selling  to  City  Retail  Stores. — Retail  stores  offer  a 
market  that  should  not  be  overlooked.  Shipping  direct  to 
retailers  comes  near  being  direct  selling.  The  producer 
can  ship  in  larger  quantities  than  he  can  to  private  cus- 
tomers and  obtain  a  better  express  rate.  Retail  stores  that 
have  a  fancy  trade 
will  pay  a  premium 
for  fancy  eggs. 
They  have  the  mar- 
keting machinery  all 
ready  running. 
They  attend  to  de- 
liveries and  collec- 
tions. The  poultry- 
man  who  can  guar- 
antee regular  case 
shipments  of  high  A  PARCEL  POST  PACKAGE 

quality       Stock      Will  Showing  eggs  wrapped. 


340 


POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


often  do  as  well  by  shipping  to  the  retail  stores  as  in  any 
other  way. 

Hotel  and  Restaurant  Trade. — There  is  no  reason  why 
the  producers  should  not  be  able  to  furnish  the  hotel  and 
restaurant  trade  where  they  have  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  eggs.  "Why  it  is  not  now  done  more  largely  is  due 
primarily  to  a  lack  of  business  management  on  the  part  of 
producers  more  than  anything  else.  If  the  producer  has 
the  quality  and  quantity  he  should  go  to  the  best  hotels  and 
restaurants  and  endeavor  to  find  a  market. 

Parcel  Post  Shipments. — It  has  been  fairly  well  demon- 
strated that  market  eggs  may  be  shipped  successfully  by 
parcel  post.  By  a  recent  ruling  of  the  post  office  depart- 
ment packages  weighing  as  much  as  50  pounds  may  be  sent 
by  mail.  The  main  objection  to  parcel  post  shipments  has 
been  that  the  cost  of  the  container 
or  parcel  has  been  too  great  to 
admit  of  a  profit  being  made.  Dif- 
f  e  r  e  n  t  manufacturers,  however, 
have  been  at  work  on  the  problem, 
and  containers  may  now  be  ob- 
tained at  prices  that  are  within 
reach.  It  is  not  expected  that  a 
profit  can  be  made  by  the  producer 
unless  he  can  get  a  little  higher 
price  for  the  eggs  than  is  paid  for 
second  grade  eggs  in  the  city.  The 
producer  in  working  up  a  parcel 
post  trade  must  cater  to  that  class 
of  consumers  who  wish  eggs  of  su- 
perior quality  and  are  willing  to 
THE  CARRIER  pay  more  for  them  than  for  eggs 

The  rural  mail  carrier  takes     of  inferior  quality.    The  consumer 

the  eggs  from  the  farm  to  the        .         ,  -.  ,,  . 

post-office.  is  able  to  secure  in  this  way  eggs 


MARKETING  EGGS   AND   POULTRY  341 

of  first  quality  at  the  same  price  he  pays  for  eggs  of  poorer 
quality.  There  will,  however,  always  be  another  class  of 
consumers  who  are  unable  or  unwilling  to  pay  the  price 
that  will  enable  the  producer  to  ship  them  by  parcel  post. 

The  post  office  department  has  made  certain  regulations 
in  regard  to  shipments  that  the  shipper  must  observe.  The 
package  must  be  made  in  such  a  way  that  the  contents  of 
the  egg,  if  broken,  will  not  run  out  of  the  package  and  in- 
jure other  mail  matter.  To  obviate  this  it  is  required  that 
each  egg  be  wrapped  separately,  except  when  in  packages 
exceeding  20  pounds ;  those  are  not  required  to  be  wrapped. 
All  parcels  must  be  labeled  EGGS.  Parcels  weighing  more 
than  20  pounds  will  be  accepted,  but  the  crates  or  boxes 
must  have  tight  bottoms.  Such  packages  must  be  marked 
"Eggs — this  side  up."  They  will  be  transported  outside 
mail  bags.  Producers  wishing  addresses  of  manufacturers 
of  shipping  packages,  may  apply  to  their  home  state  ex- 
periment stations. 

The  larger  the  package  or  the  more  eggs  shipped  in  one 
package,  the  lower  the  cost  per  dozen  for  parcel  post.  For 
instance,  in  the  first  and  second  zones  the  first  pound  costs 
5  cents,  while  each  additional  pound  up  to  fifty,  costs  but  1 
cent.  A  twenty-pound  parcel  would  cost  24  cents  or  1.4 
cents  a  pound.  Five  dozen  eggs  weighing,  with  container, 
ten  pounds,  will  cost  for  postage  in  a  distance  from  50  to 
150  miles,  14  cents,  or  2.8  cents  a  dozen.  The  return  postage 
would  be  6  or  7  cents.  The  postage  should  be  charged  to 
the  customer,  likewise  the  cost  of  the  container.  When  the 
container  is  returned  the  customer  would  be  given  credit 
for  it. 

To  make  the  business  a  success  there  must  be  mutual  co- 
operation between  the  producer  and  consumer.  It  must  be 
understood  by  the  producer  that  the  consumer  will  purchase 
his  eggs  only  so  long  as  he  can  furnish  a  superior  article. 


342  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

On  the  other  hand,  it  will  be  understood  by  the  consumer 
that  he  will  secure  from  the  producer  better  eggs  than  he 
can  secure  through  indirect  channels  at  the  same  price. 
It  means  a  better  profit  to  the  producer  and  at  the  same 
time  a  saving  to  the  consumer. 

The  producer  should  be  fully  alive  to  the  possibilities  of 
this  method  of  selling  and  should  take  particular  care  to 
grade  his  eggs  as  to  size  and  color,  separating  the  white  and 
the  brown  eggs  and  discarding  all  under-sized  and  over- 
sized, ill-shapen  and  dirty  or  stained  eggs.  Above  all,  he 
must  be  sure  that  he  ships  nothing  that  is  not  perfectly 
fresh.  He  will  not  long  retain  his  customers  unless  he 
gives  heed  to  those  points.  Again,  it  will  pay  well  to  use 
neat  and  clean  packages  and  also  a  wrapping-paper  of 
proper  size  and  quality.  By  treating  the  customers  fairly 
and  pleasing  them  he  will  be  able  to  secure  others  because 
a  pleased  customer  will  recommend  others  to  him. 

In  regard  to  fixing  the  price,  probably  the  most  prac- 
ticable method  is  to  have  an  agreement  with  the  consumer 
that  the  price  will  be  the  highest  wholesale  quotations  in 
the  daily  papers  plus  so  many  cents  premium.  This  should 
be  sufficient  to  pay  the  postage  and  package,  and  the  cost 
of  the  extra  care  given  the  eggs. 

Comparison  of  Direct  and  Indirect  Selling. — As  be- 
tween the  two  methods  of  selling — direct  and  indirect — the 
former  undoubtedly  favors  the  maintenance  of  the  higher 
standard  of  quality.  In  shipping  to  consumers  the  producer 
is  directly  responsible  for  his  product.  Any  complaint  will 
come  to  him  direct.  He  is  able  to  retain  his  customers  only 
so  long  as  he  furnishes  eggs  of  superior  quality.  He  has 
a  direct  interest  in  the  quality  of  his  product.  By  the  in- 
direct method  the  producer's  identity  is  not  known.  "When 
his  eggs  are  marketed  with  those  of  a  hundred  other 
farmers,  there  is  no  particular  object  in  taking  pains  to 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND  POULTRY  343 

preserve  the  quality.  Second,  by  the  direct  method  the  pro- 
ducer of  good  eggs  is  able  to  get  a  price  for  them  which  he 
is  not  able  to  secure  when  his  eggs  are  marketed  in  common 
with  those  of  various  other  producers.  Third,  by  shipping 
direct  to  consumers  he  is  able  to  add  to  his  profits  a  part  at 
least  of  the  profit  that  went  to  various  middlemen.  There 
will  always  be  needed,  however,  an  outlet  for  surplus  stock 
which  is  only  furnished  at  present  through  the  medium  of 
the  jobber  and  retailer. 

Buying  by  Quality. — This  brings  up  the  question  of  buy- 
ing by  quality.  The  greatest  objection  to  present  methods 
of  marketing  eggs  is  the  heretofore  almost  universal  prac- 
tice of  dealers  paying  for  them  by  the  dozen  without  refer- 
ence to  their  quality.  There  is  one  price  for  eggs  at  the 
local  stores.  A  farmer  who  once  a  week  gathers  his  eggs 
from  stolen  nests  under  the  barn  and  in  the  fence  corners 
and  takes  them  to  town,  gets  the  i  ( going  price ' '  at  the  store. 
Another  farmer  who  gathers  the  eggs  regularly  from  clean 
nests  once  a  day  and  twice  a  day  in  hot  weather  and  takes 
them  to  town  every  two  or  three  days,  gets  the  same  ' '  going 
price. ' '  He  has  no  inducement  to  maintain  the  good  quality 
of  his  eggs.  The  system  does  not  encourage  it;  rather  it 
encourages  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  producer.  It 
offers  a  premium  on  dishonesty.  The  wonder  is,  on  the 
one  hand,  that  the  producer  is  able  to  maintain  his  in- 
tegrity, and  on  the  other  that  the  consumer  is  able  to  get 
an  egg  of  good  quality. 

Before  the  eggs  reach  the  consumer  the  broody  hen  sits 
on  them  a  while,  the  sun  incubates  them  a  while,  the  rail- 
road rides  on  them  a  while,  the  city  storekeeper  broods 
over  them  a  while,  and  the  consumer  raves  over  them  quite 
a  while. 

The  storekeeper  is  not  alone  responsible  for  this  method. 
The  dealers  and  commission  men  follow  the  same  method 


344  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

in  buying  from,  the  storekeeper.  They  buy  them  by  the 
case-count.  It  is  called  the  case-count  system.  During  the 
past  few  years  an  active  campaign  has  begun  in  several 
states  to  do  away  with  the  case-count  system  and  substitute 
a  system  of  buying  on  the  basis  of  quality.  This  means 
that  the  dealer  in  purchasing  a  case  of  eggs  candles  them, 
computes  the  loss  due  to  shrinkage,  blood-rings,  etc.,  and 
pays  accordingly.  This  is  known  as  the  "loss-off"  method 
of  buying,  which  is  really  paying  according  to  quality.  If 
this  system  comes  fully  into  vogue  it  will  result  in  saving 
millions  of  dollars  a  year  to  the  producers,  for  the  loss 
finally  is  charged  up  against  the  producer.  It  will  also 
fasten  the  attention  of  the  producer  on  the  importance  of 
breeding  for  size  of  egg,  feeding  for  quality  in  the  egg,  and 
on  methods  of  handling  the  egg  that  will  best  preserve  its 
quality. 

Grades  of  Eggs. — Under  the  old  system,  an  "egg  was 
an  egg,"  and  at  the  present  day,  in  the  majority  of  primary 
markets,  one  egg  is  as  good  as  another.  Now  before  eggs 
reach  the  consumers  in  large  cities  they  have  to  stand  an 
examination,  and  the  expert  finds  that  there  are  various 
kinds  of  eggs,  and  a  name  or  grade  is  given  to  each  kind. 
The  different  grades  of  eggs  recognized  by  expert  candlers 
in  the  large  markets  are  described  in  Bulletin  160,  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  as  follows : 

Fresh  Egg. — An  egg  to  be  accepted  as  a  first,  or  fresh 
egg,  must  be  newly  laid,  clean,  of  normal  size,  showing  a 
very  small  air  cell,  and  must  have  a  strong,  smooth  shell 
of  even  color  and  free  from  cracks. 

Checks. — This  term  applies  to  eggs  which  are  cracked 
but  not  leaking. 

Leakers. — As  indicated  by  the  name,  this  term  applies 
to  eggs  which  have  lost  a  part  of  their  contents. 

Seconds. — The  term  "seconds"  applies  to  eggs  which 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND   POULTRY  345 

have  deteriorated  to  a  sufficient  extent  as  to  be  rejected  as 
firsts.  The  several  classes  of  eggs  which  go  to  make  up  this 
grade  may  be  defined  as  follows : 

(a)  Heated  Egg. — One  in  which  the  embryo  has  pro- 
ceeded to  a  point  corresponding  to  about  18  to  24  hours  of 
normal  incubation.    In  the  infertile  egg  this  condition  can 
be  recognized  by  the  increased  color  of  the  yolk ;  when  held 
before  the  candle  it  will  appear  heavy  and  slightly  darker 
than  in  the  fertile  egg. 

(b)  Shrunken  Egg. — This  class  of  seconds  can  be  easily 
distinguished  by  the  size  of  the  air  cell.     It  may  occupy 
from  one-fifth  to  one-third  of  the  space  inside  the  shell. 

(c)  Small  Egg. — Any  egg  that  will  detract  from  the 
appearance  of  normal  eggs  on  account  of  its  small  size  will 
come  under  this  class,  although  it  may  be  a  new-laid  egg. 

(d)  Dirty  Egg. — Fresh  eggs  which  have  been  soiled  with 
earth,  droppings,  or  egg  contents,  or  badly  stained  by  com- 
ing in  contact   with   wet  straw,  hay,  etc.,  are  classed  as 
seconds. 

(e)  Watery  Egg. — Those  in  which  the  inner  membrane 
of  the  air  cell  is  ruptured,  allowing  the  air  to  escape  into 
the  contents  of  the  egg,  and  thereby  giving  a  watery  or 
frothy  appearance. 

(f)  Presence  of  Foreign  Matter  in  Eggs. — Often  eggs 
are  laid  which  show  small  clots  of  blood  about  the  size  of 
a  pea.     These  are  sometimes  termed  " liver "  or  "meat" 
spots. 

(g)  Badly  Misshaped  Eggs. — Eggs  which  are  extremely 
long  or  very  flat,  or  in  which  part  of  the  shell's  surface  is 
raised  in  the  form  of  a  ring ;  in  other  instances  a  number  of 
hard,  wart-like  growths  appear  on  the  outside  of  the  shell. 

Spots. — Eggs  in  which  bacteria  or  mold  growth  has  de- 
veloped locally  and  caused  the  formation  of  a  lumpy  ad- 
hesion on  the  inside  of  the  shell. 


346  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Blood  Rings. — Eggs  in  which  the  embryo  has  developed 
to  a  sufficient  extent  so  that  it  is  quickly  recognized  when 
held  before  the  candle. 

Rots. — Eggs  which  are  absolutely  unfit  for  food.  The 
different  classes  of  rots  may  be  defined  as  follows : 

(a)  Black  Rot. — This  is  the  easiest  class  of  rots  to  recog- 
nize and  consequently  the  best  known.     When  the  egg  is 
held  before  the  candle,  the  contents  have  a  blackish  appear- 
ance, and  in  most  cases  the  air  cell  is  very  prominent.    The 
formation  of  hydrogen-sulphid  gas  in  the  egg  causes  the 
contents  to  blacken  and  gives  rise    to    the    characteristic 
rotten-egg  smell,  and  sometimes  causes  the  egg  to  explode. 

(b)  White  Rot. — These  eggs  have  a  characteristic  sour 
smell.     The  contents  become  watery,  the  yolk  and  white 
mixed,  and  the  whole  egg  offensive  to  both  the  sight  and  the 
smell.    It  is  also  known  as  the  '  *  mixed  rot. ' ' 

(c)  Spot  Rot. — In  this  case  the  foreign  growth  has  not 
contaminated  the  entire  egg,  but  has  remained  near  the 
point  of  entrance.     Such  eggs  are  readily  picked  out  with 
the  candle,  and  when  broken  show  lumpy  particles  adhering 
to  the  inside  of  the  shell.    These  lumps  are  of  various  colors 
and  appearances. 

White  and  Brown  Eggs. — The  color  of  the  shell  in  cer- 
tain markets  affects  the  price  of  the  egg.  Most  markets  in 
the  United  States  prefer  the  white  egg.  New  York  markets 
pay  a  premium  for  white  eggs.  Among  the  best  grades, 
brown  eggs  sell  for  about  20%  less  than  white  eggs.  There 
is  no  difference,  however,  in  price  of  cheaper  grades  on  ac- 
count of  color.  In  San  Francisco  the  brown  egg  is  also 
discounted.  In  Boston  the  reverse  is  true,  the  brown  egg 
being  preferred. 

This  does  not  mean  that  there  is  any  difference  in  the 
quality  of  the  brown  and  the  white  egg.  The  difference 
in  price  is,  however,  undoubtedly  due  in  part  to  the  mis- 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND  POULTRY  347 

taken  notion  that  there  is  such  a  difference  in  quality.  The 
color  of  the  shell  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  quality  of  the 
contents. 

Classification  of  Eggs. — The  classification  of  eggs  is  con- 
trolled by  city  mercantile  bodies  interested  in  the  buying 
and  selling  of  farm  produce.  The  classification  varies  in 
different  cities.  The  average  producer  knows  no  classifica- 
tion; in  other  words,  on  the  farm  "eggs  is  eggs";  but  by 
the  time  they  reach  the  city  markets  there  is  a  rigid 
culling  and  they  are  separated  into  many  grades  or  classes. 
A  study  of  these  grades  and  classifications  indicates  that 
the  losses  occur  largely  through  wrong  methods  of  handling 
the  eggs  before  they  leave  the  farm,  and  the  producer  must 
be  the  loser  in  the  end. 

The  following,  taken  from  the  New  York  Times  of 
May  1,  1914,  shows  the  many  different  classes  into  which 
eggs  are  divided  by  dealers  in  that  city  and  the  range  of 
values  placed  upon  them: 

Fresh  gathered  extras,  23,  23%  cents. 

Storage  packed  firsts,  22,  22%  cents. 

Regular  packed  firsts,  21%,  22  cents. 

Seconds,  20%,  21  cents. 

Thirds  and  fourths,  19%,  20  cents. 

Number  1  dirties  19%  cents. 

Number  2  dirties  16,  18  cents. 

Checks  good  to  prime,  dry  18,  19  cents. 

State,  Penn.  and  nearby  hennery,  whites  fine  to  fancy  24  cents. 

Gathered  whites,  fine  to  finest,  23%  cents. 

State,  Penn.  and  nearby  whites,  fair  to  good,  22,  23  cents. 

Western  gathered  whites,  22,  22%  cents. 

State,  Penn.  and  nearby  hennery  browns,  23,  23%  cents. 

Gathered  brown  and  mix  colors,  21,  22  cents. 

Baltimore  selected,  22,  23  cents. 

Western,  20,  22  cents. 

Tenn.  and  other  good  Southern,  19,  21  cents. 

Far  Southern,  17,  18  cents. 


348  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  following  quotations  from  the  Chicago  Herald  of 
August  23,  1914,  gives  the  grades  recognized  in  that  city 
and  the  relative  values  placed  upon  different  grades.  The 
range  on  that  date  was  from  27  to  15  cents  a  dozen : 

Extras    26,  27  cents 

Firsts 22,  23  cents 

Ordinary  firsts 19%,  20%   cents 

CKecks    15,  16%  cents 

Dirties    16,  17%  cents 

Miscellaneous  lots 16%  to  22%  cents 

Conditions  that  Injure  the  Quality  of  Eggs. — While 
the  new-laid  egg  is  "one  of  the  most  delicious  morsels  to 
the  human  palate  and  one  to  fill  the  heart  of  man  with 
loving-kindness, ' '  it  should  be  clearly  understood  that  under 
certain  conditions  it  rapidly  loses  its  peculiar  excellence. 
It  is  a  perishable  article.  The  rate  of  deterioration  is  in- 
fluenced by  many  things,  such  as : 

Insufficient  Nests. — A  new-laid  egg  may  not  be  fresh; 
that  is,  it  may  have  lost  its  freshness  by  the  time  it  is 
gathered  in  the  evening  if  there  are  insufficient  nests  for 
the  hens.  If  hens  are  continually  on  the  nests  throughout 
the  day  the  embryo  may  begin  to  develop  in  the  fertile  eggs. 
At  any  rate,  they  will  have  lost  some  of  their  freshness. 
When  the  nests  are  crowded  all  day  it  is  a  sign  that  there 
are  too  few  nests. 

The  Broody  Hen. — At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  the 
broody  hens  are  responsible  for  a  considerable  loss  in  the 
quality  of  the  eggs.  If  permitted  to  remain  with  the  flock 
of  layers  the  broody  hens  will  injure  a  great  many  eggs  by 
sitting  on  them  and  starting  incubation. 

Stolen  Nests.— Rotten  and  stale  eggs  often  come  from 
the  stolen  nests.  They  are  found  by  the  children  under  the 
corn-crib,  in  the  straw  or  hay-stack  or  fence  corner.  When 
these  "finds"  are  mixed  with  the  regular  supply  of  fresh 


MARKETING   EGGS   AND   POULTRY  349 

eggs  and  the  city  consumer  gets  one  on  his  breakfast  table, 
it  will  be  "no  more  eggs  for  him,"  and  the  consumption 
of  eggs  is  curtailed.  With  proper  nesting  arrangements 
the  hens  will  not  be  so  likely  to  steal  their  nests. 

Dirty  Nests. — Dirty  nests  affect  the  flavor  and  keeping 
qualities  of  the  egg.  Germs  of  decomposition  may  enter 
the  egg ;  dirt  stains  on  the  egg  will  spoil  it  for  select  trade. 
The  nests  should  frequently  be  examined  and  the  nesting 
material  renewed.  Clean,  fine  hay  or  straw  in  the  nest 
will  help  to  keep  up  the  quality  and  grade  of  the  eggs. 

Fertility  of  Eggs. — The  starting  of  incubation  or  the 
development  of  the  embryo  starts  most  of  the  trouble  be- 
tween producer  and  consumer.  If  there  were  no  males  in 
the  flock  and  the  eggs  were  not  fertile  there  would  be  fewer 
complaints  of  bad  eggs.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  loss 
in  quality  of  eggs  due  to  the  presence  of  males  in  the  flock 
amounts  to  millions  of  dollars  a  year  in  this  country.  Males 
are  necessary  to  fertilize  the  eggs  for  hatching,  but  not  for 
any  other  purpose.  The  infertile  eggs  have  better  keeping 
qualities  in  warm  weather  than  the  fertile.  There  is  no 
difference  in  the  egg  yield  whether  the  males  run  with  the 
flock  or  not.  They  should  be  removed  from  the  yards  after 
the  breeding  season  is  past.  If  not  desired  for  breeding  in 
another  season  the  males  should  be  marketed.  Keeping 
them  till  fall  only  means  that  a  lower  price  will  be  received 
for  them.  If,  however,  eggs  are  kept  in  a  cool  place,  or  at 
a  temperature  low  enough  to  prevent  germ  development,  it 
will  make  no  difference  in  their  keeping  qualities  whether 
fertile  or  not. 

Gathering  the  Eggs. — In  cold  weather  if  the  eggs  are 
left  in  the  nest  over  night  they  are  liable  to  freeze,  and  in 
warm  weather  if  they  are  not  regularly  and  frequently 
gathered  there  is  likely  to  be  germ  development.  In  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  country  where  the  temperature  f re- 


350  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

quently  reaches  a  point  where  incubation  will  begin,  the 
eggs  must  be  frequently  gathered.  The  rule  for  gathering 
the  eggs  should  be,  once  a  day,  except  in  warm  weather 
when  it  should  be  twice  a  day. 

Storing  or  Keeping  the  Eggs. — Cooling  the  eggs  checks 
deterioration.  After  being  gathered  they  should  be  kept 
in  a  moderately  cool  place  until  shipped.  The  best  tem- 
perature is  between  45  and  60  degrees.  A  cool,  dry  cellar 
is  the  best  place.  Objectionable  odors  may  pass  through 
the  shell  to  the  contents.  The  eggs  should  not,  therefore, 
be  stored  near  decaying  vegetables,  coal  oil,  or  other  things 
that  may  injure  their  flavor. 

Shipping  the  Eggs. — The  eggs  should  be  shipped  to 
market  as  frequently  as  possible,  at  least  once  a  week,  and 
in  warm  weather  twice  a  week.  The  fresh  egg  soon  be- 
comes a  stale  egg. 

Clean  Eggs. — To  grade  as  first  quality  the  eggs  must 
be  clean.  The  hen  covers  the  egg  contents  with  a  clean 
shell  to  preserve  its  purity;  the  poultryman  should  be  as 
careful  to  keep  its  exterior  clean.  Dirty  nests  and  dirty 
yards  cause  the  dirty  eggs.  Dirty  yards  mean  dirty  feet 
and  dirty  feet  mean  dirty  eggs,  and  dirty  eggs  mean  loss 
of  profits. 

Washing  the  Eggs. — Washing  the  eggs  may  injure  their 
keeping  qualities  and  spoil  their  natural  appearance.  It 
is  better,  however,  to  wash  the  eggs  than  to  market  them 
dirty.  Rubbing  with  a  clean,  moist  cloth  may  be  all  that 
is  necessary.  A  little  washing  powder  or  sapolio  may  be 
used  where  necessary. 

Taking  the  Eggs  to  Market. — Sometimes  the  quality  of 
the  eggs  is  injured  on  the  way  from  farm  to  town.  If  the 
sun  on  a  hot  day  in  a  long  drive  strikes  on  the  eggs  it  will 
injure  them  seriously.  The  sun  is  an  incubator,  and  it  is 
not  well  to  incubate  eggs  that  are  intended  for  the  break- 


MARKETING  EGGS   AND   POULTRY  351 

fast  table  of  some  city  customer  who  believes  in  pure  food 
and  good  living.  Undue  jarring  of  the  eggs  should  also 
be  obviated. 

Exposing  for  Sale. — A  great  many  retailers  treat  eggs 
as  though  their  quality  was  improved  by  warmth.  In  cold 
weather  the  eggs  have  a  place  near  the  stove  very  frequently, 
and  in  summer  they  are  put  in  the  window  where  they  can 
get  the  benefit  of  the  sunshine.  This  treatment  should  be 
reversed.  Displaying  eggs  in  the  window  where  the  hot 
sun  strikes  on  them  is  not  a  good  advertisement  for  the 
eggs. 

Grading  Eggs. — In  large  markets  eggs  are  graded  ac- 
cording to  size,  color,  and  quality.  Consumers  must  have 
some  assurance  of  the  quality  of  the  eggs,  otherwise  they 
will  be  afraid  to  eat  them.  The  grading  of  eggs,  therefore, 
by  assuring  purchasers  of  their  quality,  tends  to  increase 
consumption  and  the  profits  of  the  producer. 

1.  Size. — The  poultryman  should  breed  for  size  of  egg 
as  well  as  number.     The  importance  of  this  has  not  been 
brought  home  to  him  very  strongly,  because  his  eggs  have, 
in  most  cases,  been  paid  for  by  the  dozen  and  not  by  weight 
or  size.     In  the  future  the  size  of  eggs  must  be  reckoned 
with.    "Whether  they  will  be  sold  by  the  pound  or  the  grade, 
the  larger  eggs  will  command  the  higher  prices.     This  is 
now  the  rule  in  many  of  the  leading  markets.     Poultry- 
men  should  not  be  satisfied  until  their  flocks  produce  eggs 
that  average  two  ounces  per  egg,  or  l1/^  pounds  per  dozen. 
Hens  laying  smaller  eggs  should  not  be  used  as  breeders. 
Uniformity  in  size  has  also  a  market  value.     The  very 
large  egg  as  well  as  the  very  small  egg  should  not  be  used 
for  the  special  trade.    The  more  uniform  the  size  the  better 
the  eggs  look.     Care  and  feeding  of  the  fowls  have  an  in- 
fluence on  size  of  egg,  as  explained  in  Chapter  XI. 

2.  Color. — Uniformity  in  color  has  also  a  market  value 


352 


POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


as  shown  by  market  quotations  in  several  of  the  large 
centers.  The  preference  of  consumers  for  eggs  of  a  certain 
color  is  based  on  a  fad,  but  so  long  as  the  fad  does  not 
interfere  with  his  business  the  poultryman  will  take 
cognizance  of  it  and  endeavor  to  furnish  eggs  of  the  color 
that  will  command  the  highest  price,  whether  they  be  white 
or  brown.  In  many  markets  no  importance  is  placed  on 
color,  but  if  the  poultryman  has  eggs  of  different  colors  it 
will  pay  him  to  separate  them,  filling  one  end  of  the  crate 
with  white  and  the  other  with  browns  if  he  has  not  enough 
to  make  a  case  of  each,  or  if  cartons  are  used  they  may  be 
separated  in  this  way. 

3.  Shape  of  Egg. — Abnormal  eggs  should  be  culled  out. 
These  include  double-yolked  eggs,  ill-shapen  eggs  and  soft- 
shelled  eggs.  "With  proper  at- 
tention to  breeding  and  man- 
agement of  the  fowls  the  percent- 
age of  culls  should  be  small. 

4.  The   Egg    Contents.— Eggs 
that  are  either  too  highly  colored 
or  too  pale  in  the  yolk  are  objec- 
tionable.    The  color  is  controlled 
by  the  feed.     (See  Chapter  XI.) 

5.  Candling.— The    quality    of 
the  egg  contents  is  determined  by 
candling.  By  candling  it  is  meant 
that  tl^e  egg  is  subjected  to  a  light 
that  reveals,  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses,    its     real     market    value. 
There    are    various    methods    of 
candling  eggs.    In  early  methods 
a  tallow  candle  was  used,  hence 
the  origin  of  the  name  candling. 
A    candle    was   put    inside   of   a 


COMMERCIAL  EGG 
CANDLING 


(Courtesy,  Bureau  of  Chemis- 
try, U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture.) 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND   POULTRY 


353 


small  box  in  which  a  hole,  a  trifle  smaller  than 
an  egg  had  been  cut,  and  by  holding  an  egg  at  the 
opening  the  condition  of  the  egg  could  be  seen.  The 
candling  is  done  in  a  reasonably  dark  room.  Instead  of  a 
candle  an  ordinary  oil  lamp  may  be  used,  placing  the  lamp 
in  a  box.  A  tin  chimney,  with  a  hole  in  the  side,  may  be 


A  GOOD  EGG  TESTER 

A  kerosene  lamp  set  inside  of  a  shoe  box  or  a 
cereal  box,  with  a  hole  opposite  lamp  flame,  makes 
a  good  tester. 

put  on  the  lamp  in  place  of  the  glass  chimney.  Special 
testers  or  chimneys  of  this  kind  may  be  purchased  at  poul- 
try supply  houses.  An  electric  light  bulb  may  be  used  in- 
side of  an  ordinary  shoe  box,  or  other  box.  Expert  candlers 
usually  use  a  tester  having  two  holes  so  that  he  can  take 
two  eggs  up  at  one  time,  one  in  each  hand.  A  length  of 
stovepipe,  with  two  holes  in  the  side  and  an  electric  light 


354 


POULTRY   BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 


bulb  inside,  is  frequently  used.     An  expert  candler  can 
test  1,000  dozen  eggs  in  a  day. 

Consumers  Should  Candle  Their  Eggs. — If  the  con- 
sumer wishes  to  assure  himself,  before  eating  the  eggs,  that 

they  are  all  right,  he 
may  very  readily  do  so 
by  using  a  small  shoe 
box  or  breakfast  cereal 
box  with  the  electric 
light.  It  should  not  con- 
sume more  than  a 
minute  to  candle  a  dozen 
or  two  dozen  eggs  in  this 
way.  He  may  detect  the 
bad  egg  or  determine 
the  quality  of  the  egg 
without  first  breaking  it 
on  to  his  breakfast  toast. 
He  can  also  check  up  on 
the  grocer  or  farmer  as 
to  the  age  of  the  egg, 
and  assure  himself  that  he  has  not  purchased  a  stale  egg  un- 
der the  name  of  new-laid.  If  the  eggs  are  not  up  to  the 
guarantee  he  can  politely  send  them  back  to  the  grocer ;  or 
if  the  case  is  an  aggravated  or  flagrant  one,  turn  the  eggs 
over  to  the  pure  food  officers  for  whatever  action  they  may 
take  in  the  matter.  Usually,  however,  if  the  consumer  deals 
with  a  reliable  farmer  he  will  very  seldom  have  occasion 
to  complain  of  the  eggs  not  being  as  represented.  Nor  will 
there  often  be  occasion  for  complaint  against  a  reliable 
grocer  who  candles  and  guarantees  his  eggs. 

The  Fresh  Egg. — The  test  of  a  fresh  egg  is  its  trans- 
parency and  the  smallness  of  its  air  space.  There  is  no  air 
space  in  an  egg  just  as  it  is  deposited  warm  and  moist  in 


Instead  of  a  kerosene  lamp,  an  electric  light 
bulb  may  be  hung  inside  the  box. 


MARKETING  EGGS   AND   POULTRY 


355 


the  nest.  As  the  egg  cools,  the  contents  contract  and  the 
air  cell  or  air  space  appears.  The  shell  being  porous,  the 
air  space  grows  larger  by  evaporation  all  the  time  the  egg 
is  kept,  the  evaporation  being  fast  or  slow  according  as  the 
temperature  is  high  or  low.  Commercially  an  egg  is  fresh 
though  it  shows  a  small  air  space.  If  properly  kept,  an 
egg  may  taste  perfectly  fresh  and  pass  in  the  market  as  a 


A   FRESH  EGG 
Note  small  air   space. 


A  STALE  EGG 

Note  large  air  space,  yolk  settled  to  one 
side,   showing   dark. 


fresh  egg  when  a  week  old,  or  more.  In  some  state  laws 
it  is  enacted  that  when  an  egg  has  been  kept  or  stored  thirty 
days  it  is  no  longer  a  fresh  egg.  Kept  under  improper  con- 
ditions, however,  an  egg  would  not  test  as  a  fresh  egg,  when 
two  or  three  days  old.  The  egg  itself  furnishes  the  evidence 
as  to  its  freshness.  The  fresh  egg  is  good  legal  tender  at 
the  country  store,  but  when  so  used  it  should  be  treated  as 
counterfeit  currency  by  the  time  it  reaches  the  consumer. 

Marking  Eggs. — The  trade-mark  of  the  egg  producer  is 
frequently  stamped  on  the  egg.  This  is  easily  and  quickly 
done  with  a  small  rubber  stamp  one-half  an  inch  in  diameter 


356  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

or  less.  The  name  of  the  producer  or  the  name  of  his  farm, 
with  address,  may  be  stamped  on  the  egg;  also  the  words 
"guaranteed  fresh. "  "Where  eggs  are  shipped  through  an 
association  of  producers  the  usual  method  is  to  give  each 
farmer  a  stamp  on  which  is  the  name  of  the  association, 
with  a  number  for  each  farmer.  In  this  way  if  a  consumer 
finds  fault  with  the  eggs  he  purchases  he  will  send  his  com- 
plaint to  the  association,  giving  the  number  on  the  egg. 
The  association  manager  knows  from  this  number  where  the 
eggs  came  from,  and  the  farmer  is  notified. 

The  stamp  on  the  egg  is  the  best  advertisement  the  pro- 
ducer can  have.  If  he  can  always  furnish  eggs  of  good 
quality  it  is  worth  his  while  to  put  his  trade-mark  on  them. 
Every  pound  of  butter  or  coffee,  every  5-cent  can  of  con- 
densed milk,  or  loaf  of  bread,  in  fact  about  everything  that 
the  housekeeper  buys  from  the  grocer  bears  the  stamp  of 
the  manufacturer.  This  advertises  his  goods  and  at  the 
same  time  protects  him  against  fraudulent  imitation.  If 
the  poultryman  wishes  to  build  up  and  hold  a  trade  for 
good  quality  eggs  he  should  advertise  by  putting  his  stamp 
on  them. 

"Where  shipments  are  made  direct  by  express  or  parcel 
post  to  consumers  this  may  not  be  necessary,  but  it  might 
happen  that  the  customer  would  mix  his  eggs  with  some 
others,  and  the  blame,  if  any,  if  the  eggs  were  bad,  might 
come  back  to  him. 

The  eggs  are  frequently  packed  by  the  poultryman  in 
cartons  holding  a  dozen,  and  his  name  and  address  are 
printed  on  the  carton.  The  carton  is  sealed,  and  the  eggs 
are  guaranteed  if  the  seal  is  not  broken.  In  such  case  the 
eggs  are  not  stamped. 

Summary. — The  loss  in  quality  of  eggs  is  due  to : 

1.  Improper  feeding  of  the  hens. 

2.  Dirty  nests  and  yards. 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND  POULTRY  357 

3.  Cracked  eggs. 

4.  Broody  hens. 

5.  Stolen  nests. 

6.  Irregularity  in  gathering. 

7.  Storing  in  a  warm  place. 

8.  Keeping  too  long  before  marketing. 

9.  Fertility,  or  keeping  males  with  the  flock. 
10.  Exposing  near  stoves  or  in  the  hot  sunshine. 
There  is  a  financial  loss  due  to : 

1.  A  loss  in  quality. 

2.  A  system  of  buying  by  the  dozen  or  case-count  with- 
out reference  to  quality. 

3.  Indirect  methods  of  buying  which  add  to  the  cost. 

4.  Express  rates  which  discriminate  against  shipments 
in  small  quantities. 

5.  Lack  of  co-operative  effort  between  producers  on  the 
one  hand,  and  between  producers    and    dealers  and  con- 
sumers on  the  other. 

Conclusion. — Improvement  in  quality  will  come  when 
the  producer  who  has  eggs  of  good  quality  to  sell  insists 
upon  the  purchaser  paying  him  according  to  quality,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  when  the  purchaser  establishes  the  in- 
flexible rule  of  grading  eggs  and  paying  according  to  grade. 

Improvement  in  financial  returns  will  come  with  im- 
provement in  quality;  improvement  in  transportation;  ex- 
tension of  the  refrigerator  service;  more  direct  marketing 
and  with  co-operation  between  producers  and  between  pro- 
ducers and  consumers. 

REFRIGERATION  OR  COLD  STORAGE  OF  EGGS 

The  invention  of  the  method  and  the  growth  of  the  busi- 
ness of  preserving  eggs  by  refrigeration  has  been  one  of 
the  notable  industrial  developments  of  the  United  States 
in  recent  years.  Whatever  may  be  the  merits  of  the  cold 


358  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

storage  product,  the  business  must  be  recognized  as  one 
of  great  importance  not  only  as  it  affects  the  cost  of  living 
or  the  food  supply  but  as  it  affects  the  business  and  the 
profits  of  the  poultry  producer.  Investigations  have  shown 
that  there  was  put  into  cold  storage  during  the  year  end- 
ing April  1,  1911,  the  enormous  total  of  about  10,000,000 
cases  of  eggs  of  an  estimated  value  of  over  $64,000,000. 
Of  this,  practically  80%  is  handled  in  the  three  months  of 
April,  May  and  June,  the  percentage  of  the  total  being 
42%  for  April,  25%  for  May  and  12.5%  for  June.  The 
cold  storage  of  butter  in  the  same  period  amounted  to 
$40,000,000.  It  was  reported  that  there  were  500  cold 
storage  plants  in  different  sections  of  the  United  States 
storing  eggs  in  that  year. 

It  cannot  be  definitely  stated  just  how  much  the  poultry 
producer  is  the  gainer  or  loser  by  the  invention  and  de- 
velopment of  the  modern  system  of  cold  storage.  There 
are  those  who  claim  that  the  business  is  an  injury  to  the 
poultry  industry,  but  the  public  has  come  to  accept  it  as 
necessary  for  the  proper  distribution  of  food  stuffs.  In  the 
early  days  of  cold  storage  of  eggs,  and  even  in  later  days  to 
a  small  extent,  there  was  abundant  excuse,  for  the  violent 
antagonism  that  the  business  frequently  encountered.  It 
is  true  that  cold  storage  eggs  have  been  frequently  sold  as 
fresh,  and  even  to  this  day  in  certain  states  unscrupulous 
dealers  practice  this  fraud  upon  both  the  poultryman  and 
the  consumer  in  the  absence  of  a  law  that  would  send  them  to 
jail  for  the  act.  But  there  is  little  excuse  now  for  antagonism 
to  the  business  of  cold  storage,  though  unscrupulous  dealers 
and  vendors  of  eggs  may  occasionally  take  advantage  of  it 
to  enrich  themselves  at  the  expense  of  the  public.  The 
business  of  refrigeration  has  been  more  perfected  and  the 
quality  of  the  product  improved.  Again  laws  have  been 
enacted  making  it  a  criminal  offense  to  sell  storage  eggs  as 
fresh  eggs. 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND  POULTRY  359 

The  substance  of  the  state  laws  that  are  now  in  force  are 
that  keeping  eggs  or  other  products  in  cold  storage  for 
thirty  days  makes  them  storage  products.  Any  such  product 
offered  for  sale  must  be  stamped  as  such  either  on  the 
package  or  product  itself.  The  time  limit  of  storage  is,  in 
New  York,  ten  months ;  in  some  states  nine  months. 

Effect  on  Prices. — With  storage  eggs  thus  stamped  and 
sold,  the  poultryman  can  have  no  valid  reason  for  object- 
ing to  the  product.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  high  price  of 
selected  fresh  eggs  will  be  appreciably  affected  by  the  sale 
of  storage  eggs.  The  people  who  buy  storage  or  second 
grade  eggs  are  not  the  ones  who  make  the  price  for  select 
eggs.  It  is  pointed  out  that  twenty  years  ago  eggs  sold 
during  the  surplus  season  in  some  states  at  6  and  8  cents 
a  dozen.  Now  they  barely  touch  15  cents  at  the  lowest. 
There  is  no  evidence,  however,  that  this  advance  is  wholly 
or  in  part  due  to  cold  storage,  nor  can  it  be  proven  that  the 
much  higher  prices  now  received  during  the  period  of 
scarcity  is  due  to  cold  storage.  The  fact  is,  however,  that 
during  the  growth  of  refrigeration  the  price  of  eggs  has 
been  climbing  upward. 

There  may  be  reason  for  the  claim  that  the  higher  pre- 
vailing prices  during  the  surplus  season  are  due  to  the 
taking  from  the  market  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  eggs 
and  putting  them  into  cold  storage.  It  is  reported  in  the 
evidence  of  a  Senate  Investigating  Committee  that  the  daily 
consumption  of  eggs  in  New  York  City  during  the  spring 
of  1910  was  12,000  cases.  The  receipts  were  about  three 
times  as  much.  "What  would  happen  to  the  market  with 
receipts  three  times  the  consumption  without  a  storage  out- 
let? Clearly,  the  only  thing  that  would  save  the  eggs  from 
being  dumped  into  the  harbor  or  thrown  back  on  the  farms 
as  fertilizer  would  be  such  a  reduction  in  prices  that  the 
people  would  consume  the  eggs.  The  storage  business, 


360  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

therefore,  tends  to  raise  prices  during  the  season  of  heavy 
production,  but  the  tendency  is  in  the  opposite  direction 
in  the  season  when  there  is  a  deficiency  in  the  supply. 

The  Refrigerator  Egg. — The  keeping  of  eggs  at  a  steady 
low  temperature  is  the  most  successful  known  method  of 
preserving  eggs.  The  best  temperature  for  cold  storage  is 
29  to  30  degrees.  The  principle  of  cold  storage  is  that 
bacterial  action,  which  causes  decomposition  or  deteriora- 
tion of  the  egg,  does  not  take  place  at  this  temperature.  The 
colder  the  eggs  are  kept  without  freezing  the  better.  Fresh 
eggs  of  good  quality  may  be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  28 
degrees,  while  those  that  are  not  perfectly  fresh  require  a 
temperature  of  30  to  32  degrees  for  best  results.  A  steady 
temperature  with  a  free  circulation  of  air  is  absolutely 
necessary  in  the  storage  room.  The  eggs  are  stored  in 
clean,  odorless  crates  holding  30  dozen. 

It  is  not  possible  to  detect  by  candling  any  difference  be- 
tween a  storage  egg  and  a  fresh  one.  There  is  a  slight 
evaporation  of  the  contents  of  the  stored  egg,  but  a  fresh 
egg  that  has  been  laid  for  several  days  may  show  the  same 
amount  of  air  space.  In  a  case  lot  of  eggs  as  it  is  taken 
from  storage,  evidence  of  storage  may  be  found  in  a  slight 
mold  which  will  show  in  cracked  eggs. 

The  success  of  storage  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
quality  of  the  egg  when  it  goes  into  storage.  Storage  does 
not  absolutely  prevent  deterioration  of  the  egg,  it  checks  it. 
Under  the  best  of  conditions  it  is  not  as  good  as  a  fresh  egg, 
but  under  proper  conditions  storage  eggs  are  better  than  a 
great  many  fresh  eggs  that  go  to  market  during  the  warm 
months.  An  egg  may  technically  be  fresh  and  yet  not  be 
a  good  egg.  Storage  men  have  learned  by  dear  experience 
that  the  early  spring  egg,  the  April  egg  in  most  sections, 
is  the  best  for  storage  purposes. 

Eggs  laid  in  March,  April  and  May  and  stored  then  are 


MARKETING   EGGS   AND   POULTRY 


361 


in  better  condition  than  eggs  laid  in  July  or  August  when 
taken  out  of  storage  in  November  or  December.  During 
the  warm  months  deterioration  has  set  in  before  the  eggs 
reach  the  refrigerator,  and  such  eggs  lose  more  in  quality 
in  the  short  time  they  are  in  storage  than  early  spring  eggs. 
This  may  not  be  due  to  a  difference  in  quality  of  eggs  when 
laid,  but  to  the  higher  temperature  to  which  they  are  sub- 


CANS  OF  FROZEN  EGGS 

These  cans  hold  30  pounds  each  of  separated  whites  and  yolks,  or  whole  eggs. 
Delivered  to  baker  o>r  confectioner  in  frozen  condition.  (Courtesy,  Bureau  of 
Chemistry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

jected  before  they  reach  the  refrigerator.  It  is  a  question 
of  handling  the  egg  rather  than  a  difference  in  the  quality. 
Limitations  of  Cold  Storage. — The  business  is  prac- 
tically confined  to  large  corporations  with  ample  capital, 
located  in  large  cities.  Mechanical  or  artificial  refrigera- 
tion is  used,  though  ice  plants  are  also  used  in  a  limited 
way.  On  account  of  the  rapid  deterioration  that  takes 
place  after  the  eggs  are  removed  from  storage,  it  is  an  ad- 


362  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

vantage  to  have  the  storage  houses  located  near  a  large  dis- 
tributing center  so  there  may  be  no  unnecessary  delay  in 
getting  the  eggs  to  the  consumers.  It  is  doubtful  if  the 
business  could  be  as  successfully  handled  with  smaller 
plants  located  near  the  points  of  production  rather  than 
centers  of  distribution,  but  in  certain  producing  sections 
where  there  is  a  considerable  local  market  small  co- 
operative plants  might  be  established  with  profit. 

The  Future. — "Will  the  business  of  storage  increase? 
With  continued  improvement  in  refrigeration  and  in  ex- 
tension of  the  service  so  that  the  egg  will  be  better  taken 
care  of  after  it  leaves  the  refrigerator  and  till  it  gets  to 
the  consumer,  there  will  be  a  strong  tendency  to  an  in- 
crease in  the  business.  Another  factor,  however,  will  be 
operating  in  the  other  direction.  The  producer  by  breed- 
ing better  layers,  fowls  that  will  lay  a  larger  percentage 
of  eggs  in  the  fall  and  winter,  will  be  doing  his  best  to  put 
the  cold  storage  plant  out  of  business.  But  that  is  not  im- 
minent, desirable  as  it  might  be  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
consumer  as  well  as  the  producer.  Greater  progress  must 
be  made  than  has  ever  been  made  in  poultry  breeding  if 
any  one  now  living  is  to  see  the  day  when  winter  egg  pro- 
duction is  to  equal  that  of  the  spring  and  summer.  The 
best  we  can  hope  is  that  the  poultryman  will  produce  better 
winter  layers,  and  that  the  winter  layers  will,  in  part,  re- 
lieve cold  storage  of  the  burden  of  maintaining  a  proper 
distribution  of  eggs  throughout  the  year. 

Liquid  Preservation  of  Eggs. — For  home  purposes  eggs 
may  be  successfully  preserved  in  a  liquid  preservative. 
Liquid  preservation  was  formerly  used  commercially  to  a 
considerable  extent,  but  the  business  has  been  largely 
superseded  by  the  cold  storage  method.  Where  cold  storage 
is  out  of  the  question  a  great  many  eggs  are  "put  down" 
in  some  liquid  preservative. 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND  POULTRY  363 

The  Water-Glass  Method. — A  solution  of  water  glass 
(sodium  silicate)  is  the  most  generally  used  preservative 
for  home  purposes.  Water-glass  liquid  or  syrup  may  be 
obtained  at  most  drug  stores.  The  price  is  about  75  cents 
per  gallon.  It  varies  somewhat  in  quality.  Thatcher,  of 
the  Washington  Station,  states  that  it  should  contain  ap- 
proximately one  part  sodium  oxide  to  every  2%  parts 
silicon  oxide,  and  be  of  a  consistency  of  about  38  degrees 
Baume. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  best  strength  to  use  is  about 
one  part  water-glass  to  10  parts  water.  The  water  should 
be  boiled  and  to  every  10  quarts  water  add  one  quart  water- 
glass,  or  in  that  proportion.  The  water  must  be  allowed  to 
cool  before  putting  the  eggs  in.  The  receptacles  used  should 
be  wooden  buckets  or  kegs,  or  earthenware  jars  or  crocks. 
Galvanized  iron  buckets  or  tubs  may  be  used.  Fruit  jars 
may  also  be  used.  Metal  vessels  that  will  corrode  in  water 
should  not  be  used.  The  liquid  must  cover  the  eggs,  and 
then  a  little  more,  to  allow  for  evaporation  so  that  the 
eggs  will  always  be  covered. 

Approximately  three  dozen  eggs  will  fill  a  gallon  jar,  or 
ten  times  that  number  in  ten  gallons.  It  will  require  about 
four  pints  of  the  liquid  to  the  gallon  of  eggs.  The  eggs 
should  be  kept  in  as  cool  a  place  as  possible.  The  coolest 
part  of  the  cellar  should  be  used.  The  fresher  the  eggs  are 
when  preserved  the  better,  but  they  may  be  kept  a  few 
days  in  a  cool  place  before  preserving.  No  cracked  or 
thin-shelled  eggs  should  be  used. 

Eggs  preserved  by  this  method  will  keep  from  the  season 
of  lowest  prices  to  season  of  highest  prices  and  be  in  condi- 
tion to  be  used.  They  will  not  have  the  taste  of  the  fresh 
egg,  however.  The  white  is  thinner  than  in  the  fresh  egg, 
but  they  will  be  perfectly  wholesome.  The  water-glass 
closes  up  the  pores  of  the  shell,  and  in  boiling  the  shell  will 


364  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

crack.  A  puncture  with  a  needle  in  the  large  end  will  pre- 
vent this. 

The  poultryman  should  understand,  however,  that  no 
matter  by  what  method  they  may  be  put  down,  preserved 
eggs  are  not  as  good  as  fresh  eggs,  and  they  should  not  be 
sold  as  such.  Laws  affecting  the  sale  of  cold  storage  eggs 
as  fresh  should  apply  equally  to  preserved  eggs. 

Selling  Eggs  for  Hatching. — Improvement  in  breeds  of 
poultry  rests  largely  upon  the  work  of  breeders  who  sell 
eggs  for  hatching.  The  facility  with  which  eggs  may  be 
shipped  great  distances  and  the  comparatively  small  cost 
of  shipping  make  it  possible  to  secure  good  stock  from  suc- 
cessful breeders  in  any  part  of  the  country.  The  introduc- 
tion of  new  and  better  blood  is  accomplished  more  often  by 
the  purchase  of  a  setting  of  eggs  than  in  any  other  way. 
At  slight  expense  for  express  or  parcel  post  it  is  possible 
to  secure  the  best  blood  from  the  next  county  or  from 
across  the  continent.  This  is  one  of  the  factors  that  make 
for  the  rapid  upbuilding  of  the  poultry  industry.  It  is,  of 
course,  true  that  distance  too  often  lends  enchantment  and 
that  the  farmer  or  poultryman  could  often  secure  as  good 
blood  from  his  next-door  neighbor  than  from  a  distant 
state. 

The  facilities  afforded  by  Uncle  Sam  and  the  express 
companies  for  securing  new  blood  has  been  taken  advantage 
of  naturally  by  unscrupulous  men  who  conduct  a  profitable 
long-distance  business  with  the  help  of  printers'  ink  and 
advertising.  The  very  facilities  for  building  up  an  in- 
dustry are  made  the  means  for  tearing  it  down.  However, 
the  good  over-balances  the  evil,  and  it  is  the  few  who  suffer. 
There  is  no  remedy  for  the  evil  except  that  the  purchaser 
learn  to  use  ordinary  business  judgment  in  making  his  pur- 
chases and  inquire  into  the  reliability  of  the  breeder  before 
he  sends  him  money,  sending  money  to  no  one  that  he  knows 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND   POULTRY  365 

nothing  about  except  what  is  stated  in  his  advertisement. 

Advertising,  however,  is  a  great  factor  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  improved  strains  or  breeds  of  poultry.  The  busi- 
ness of  the  breeder  is  built  up  largely  through  advertising, 
and  in  proportion  as  he  exercises  judgment  and  skill  in  his 
advertising  in  proportion  will  he  reap  the  financial  reward 
of  his  success  as  a  breeder. 

Selecting  Hatching  Eggs. — The  importance  of  exercis- 
ing extreme  care  in  the  selection  and  handling  of  eggs  for 
market  has  been  emphasized.  Greater  importance,  if 
possible,  should  be  attached  to  the  selection  of  eggs  for 
hatching.  The  breeder  who  is  doing  an  honest  business 
will  carefully  cull  the  eggs  before  shipping.  Only  those 
of  normal  size  and  shape  should  be  used.  If  the  poultry 
"breeders  would  make  it  a  universal  rule  to  set  or  sell  no 
eggs  for  hatching  that  did  not  weigh  two  ounces  each  it 
would  soon  result  in  a  vast  improvement  in  the  eggs  of  the 
country.  That  is  one  thing  the  breeder  can  easily  control, 
selection  for  size  of  egg.  Eggs  should  be  clean,  and  prefer- 
ably not  washed.  Washing  injures  their  hatching  quality, 
especially  when  shipped  great  distances.  They  should  not 
be  more  than  a  week  old  before  shipping,  and  kept  in  a 
clean,  dry,  cool  place  in  the  meantime.  Further  discussion 
of  selecting  eggs  for  hatching  will  be  found  under  chapter 
on  Incubation. 

Packing  Eggs  for  Hatching. — The  result  in  hatching 
eggs  shipped  long  distances  will  depend  very  materially  on 
the  method  used  in  packing  them.  The  packing  must  pre- 
vent breaking  and  jarring  the  eggs  as  much  as  possible. 
The  package  should  not  be  air-tight,  otherwise  the  eggs  will 
sweat  if  subjected  to  wide  ranges  of  temperature.  Dry, 
clean  excelsior,  or  wood  wool,  chaff  or  fine  hay  make  good 
packing  material.  The  eggs  should  not  be  wrapped  in 
paper.  Probably  the  most  satisfactory  shipping  package 


366  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

is  the  split  basket  with  handle.  The  basket  with  the  lid 
is  the  most  convenient.  A  muslin  cover  is  sewed  on  to  the 
basket  that  has  no  lid.  The  handles  make  the  package  con- 
venient for  lifting  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  placing 
other  boxes  on  top.  There  are  other  satisfactory  shipping 
boxes.  They  should  have  some  spring  or  resiliency  to  pre- 
vent undue  jarring  of  the  eggs.  Each  egg  should  be 
wrapped  in  excelsior  or  some  other  good  packing  material. 

MARKETING  POULTRY 

At  the  present  time  the  largest  proportion  of  farm  poul- 
try is  sold  alive.  The  killing  is  done  by  the  dealers  in  the 
city.  It  is  done  by  them  more  cheaply  and  better,  as  a  rule, 
than  it  can  be  done  on  the  farm.  The  farmer  and  his  help 
have  not  usually  the  skill  to  do  the  work  properly.  Another 
advantage  of  shipping  the  fowls  alive  is  that  the  dealers 
in  the  cities,  being  in  close  touch  with  the  demands  of  the 
market,  can  even  up  the  supply  to  meet  the  demand.  In 
the  case  of  a  surplus  coming  in  one  day,  they  can  hold  part 
of  it  over  for  several  days  and  kill  only  sufficient  to  meet 
the  immediate  needs.  If  the  poultry  all  came  to  market 
dressed  there  would  frequently  be  a  glut ;  that  would  mean 
often  putting  considerable  quantities  into  cold  storage  or 
losing  it.  On  the  other  hand,  there  would  frequently  be  a 
dearth  of  fresh-killed  stock.  This  would  compel  handlers 
of  poultry  to  provide  large  storage  facilities,  and  the  con- 
sumers would  be  using  storage  stock  a  large  part  of  the 
*time  instead  of  fresh  stock. 

The  evil  of  this  system  of  live  shipments  is  that  in  most 
cases  chickens  are  paid  for  on  the  basis  of  weight  without 
regard  to  quality,  though  one  farmer  may  furnish  chickens 
with  25%  more  edible  meat  for  the  money  received  than 
another  farmer.  While  the  great  bulk  of  the  poultry  is 
shipped  alive,  special  markets  may  be  worked  up  by  farmers 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND  POULTRY  367 

or  poultrymen  for  dressed  chicken  of  special  quality  by 
shipping  direct  to  consumers.  That  is  the  best  way  and 
about  the  only  way  to  get  full  value  for  fowls  of  good 
quality. 

Large  quantities  of  live  poultry  are  shipped  both  east 
and  west  from  the  Mississippi  Valley  states  and  to  a  limited 
extent  from  other  sections.  Many  carloads  of  such  poultry 


POULTRY  HOUSE  EXHIBIT 
Part  of  an  Oregon  poultry  demonstration  train. 

are  shipped  from  the  central  west  to  Pacific  Coast  points 
and  as  far  east  as  New  York.  Special  live  poultry  trans- 
portation cars  holding  from  4,000  to  5,000  fowls  are  used. 
A  man  accompanies  the  car,  doing  the  feeding  and  water- 
ing from  an  aisle  in  the  center  of  the  car.  A  rental  is 
charged  for  the  cars  in  addition  to  the  freight.  Another 
important  development  of  market  methods  is  the  purchas- 
ing by  the  meat  packers  of  large  quantities  of  farm  poultry 


368  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

for  fattening.  A  large  proportion  of  this  poultry,  after 
being  fattened,  is  killed  and  put  into  cold  storage  to  hold 
for  a  rise  in  price. 

Killing  and  Picking  Fowls. — Success  in  marketing 
dressed  chickens  to  a  select  trade  depends  very  largely  on 
methods  followed  in  killing  and  dressing.  It  should  be 
remembered,  always,  that  cleanliness  and  neatness  have  a 
market  value  when  applied  to  dressing  fowls  and  packing 


UNLOADING  A  NEBRASKA  CARLOAD  OF  POULTRY  AT  SAN 
FRANCISCO 

them  for  market.  In  other  words,  the  basis  of  a  select  trade 
must  be  superiority  of  goods. 

Killing. — Before  being  killed  the  fowls  should  be  starved 
24  hours  in  order  to  empty  the  crop.  This  will  make  the 
fowl  more  attractive.  By  starving,  the  intestines  will  be 
largely  emptied  of  their  contents.  This  improves  the  keep- 
ing qualities.  It  is  important  in  killing  that  the  fowl  be 
thoroughly  bled.  A  well  bled  carcass  looks  better  and 
keeps  better.  The  dressed  fowl  will  not  be  select  where  the 
bleeding  has  not  been  done  thoroughly. 

Sticking. — The  best  method  of  bleeding  is  that  of  stick- 
ing the  fowl  in  the  mouth.  It  takes  some  practice  to  be- 
come expert.  The  success  in  bleeding  depends  on  the  kind 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND  POULTRY  369 

of  stick.  Usually  the  bird  is  hung  up  on  a  level  with  the 
shoulders  of  the  operator.  The  head  of  the  chicken  is  laid 
in  the  left  hand  so  as  to  have  the  comb  down.  The  pressure 
should  be  on  the  boney  part  of  the  head,  not  on  the  neck, 
as  pressure  there  will  prevent  proper  bleeding.  The  bills 
are  held  apart  by  inserting  the  first  finger  in  the  corner  of 
the  mouth.  The  knife  should  be  sharp  pointed,  about  2 
inches  long  and  a  fourth  of  an  inch  wide.  The  blood  vessel 
is  first  cut  on  the  right  side  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  at  the 
neck  where  the  bone  of  the  skull  ends. 

The  brain  stick  is  necessary  where  the  fowls  are  to  be  dry 
picked.  This  is  to  "loosen  up"  the  feathers.  After  cutting 
the  artery  the  knife  is  quickly  inserted  in  the  brain  through 
the  groove  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  This  paralyzes  the 
muscles  and  makes  dry  picking  easy,  but  it  must  be  done 
before  the  muscles  contract.  The  picking  commences  im- 
mediately after  the  brain  stick  is  made  and  even  before  the 
fowl  dies. 

Picking. — The  breast  feathers  are  first  picked,  then  the 
long  tail  feathers  and  wing  feathers.  The  picking  must  be 
done  quickly  when  the  feathers  come  off  easily.  Care,  of 
course,  must  be  taken  not  to  tear  the  skin.  After  the  rough 
picking  comes  the  pin  feathering.  This  is  done  sitting, 
with  the  chicken  on  the  knees.  It  is  necessary  to  use  a 
knife  to  catch  all  the  small  pin  feathers. 

This  method  of  killing  and  picking  requires  considerable 
practice  to  be  able  to  do  it  at  a  profit.  In  commercial  estab- 
lishments expert  pickers  kill  and  dress  in  this  way  as  many 
as  100  fowls  per  day. 

Cooling. — When  picked  they  should  be  immediately  put 
into  cold  water  for  about  an  hour.  This  removes  the 
animal  heat  and  improves  their  keeping  quality.  It  also 
gives  them  a  plumper  appearance.  They  should  never  be 
packed  until  the  animal  heat  has  been  removed. 


370 


POULTRY   BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 


Shaping. — After  picking  and  cooling  the  bird  is  fre- 
quently shaped  on  a  shaping  board  to  give  it  a  more  com- 
pact appearance.  It  is  placed  breast  down  on  a  board  and 
a  weight  put  on  its  back.  This  may  be  called  a  harmless 
" trick  of  the  trade."  Fowls  that  are  naturally  well  fleshed 
and  plump  will  not  be  improved  by  this  treatment. 


I 


i 


DRY  PICKING,   DRY  COOLING  AND   DRY-PACKED   POULTRY 

Scalding. — For  home  use  and  immediate  consumption 
scalding  is  the  almost  universal  method.  It  is  also  used  by 
dealers  in  many  large  centers.  It  is  the  easiest  and  quick- 
est method  of  removing  the  feathers.  The  objections  to 
scalding  are  that  it  tends  to  disfigure  the  skin  and  change 
its  natural  color.  Water  for  scalding  should  be  kept  just 
below  boiling.  The  feathers  rub  off  easily  when  properly 
scalded.  The  legs  and  feet  should  not  be  allowed  to  touch 
the  water. 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND  POULTRY  371 

Drawn  and  Undrawn  Poultry. — It  is  a  much  debated 
point  as  to  whether  fowls  should  be  drawn  when  killed. 
In  some  markets  the  law  requires  poultry  to  be  drawn  be- 
fore exposing  for  sale.  In  most  markets,  however,  the  prac- 
tice is  general  to  leave  the  drawing  or  dressing  to  the  retail 
dealer  at  the  option  of  the  purchaser.  The  evidence  seems 
to  favor  the  view  that  undrawn  poultry  keeps  better  than 
drawn.  The  theory  is  that  in  the  drawn  chicken  the  inside 
of  the  intestinal  walls  are  exposed  to  the  invasion  of  bac- 
teria which  will  hasten  the  process  of  decay.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  claimed  that  the  putrefactive  bacteria  of  the  in- 
testines will  infect  the  flesh  of  the  fowl  and  cause  more 
rapid  decomposition.  Further  investigations  seem  needed. 

Meantime  there  is  no  ground  for  wholesale  condemnation 
of  undrawn  poultry.  "With  proper  bleeding  and  chilling 
no  danger  may  be  feared  from  either  drawn  or  undrawn 
fowls.  One  important  point  in  favor  of  the  undrawn  is 
that  the  housekeeper  could  see  evidence  of  unfitness  for 
eating  if  she  drew  the  fowl  or  removed  the  viscera  herself. 
Most  of  the  important  diseases  of  fowls  are  often  indicated 
by  the  appearance  of  the  liver  and  intestines.  In  the  case 
of  tuberculosis  the  evidence,  in  a  great  majority  of  cases,  is 
found  in  the  condition  of  those  organs. 

Parcel  Post  Shipments. — While  the  practicability  of 
parcel  post  for  dressed  poultry  has  not  been  demonstrated 
in  an  extensive  way,  it  affords  a  medium  not  heretofore 
available  for  direct  shipments  to  consumers.  For  a  special 
trade  in  fancy  stock  it  offers  an  opportunity  to  the  poultry- 
man  who  can  produce  the  proper  grade  of  stock  to  do  a 
profitable  business.  Dressed  chickens  can  be  taken  direct 
from  the  farm  to  the  door  of  the  consumer  in  the  city  within 
150  miles  at  a  cost  of  from  1  to  2  cents  a  pound,  depending 
on  the  weight  of  chicken  in  package.  The  great  waste  of 
marketing  should  be  saved  to  both  the  consumer  and  to  the 


372  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

producer  by  direct  shipments.    This  should  also  encourage 
a  much  greater  consumption  of  poultry. 

Loss  in  Killing  and  Dressing. — This  loss  is  usually  con- 
sidered the  weight  of  feathers  plucked  and  the  blood  drawn 
from  the  fowl.  The  head  and  feet  are  left  on  and  the 
carcass  undrawn.  The  following  table  shows  results  secured 
at  the  Oregon  Station  from  88  fowls : 

Liveweight   348     pounds 

Dressed  weight 306.8       " 

Loss 41.2      " 

Per  cent,  loss 11.8 

The  dressing  percentage  varies  with  the  condition,  age 
and  breed  of  fowl.  A  fair  average  would  be  88%. 

Edible  Meat  on  the  Fowl. — The  percentage  of  edible 
meat  varies  with  the  breed,  the  condition  of  the  fowl  and 
its  age.  Work  at  the  Oregon  Station  indicated  that  a  fowl 
in  fair  condition  has  about  60%  edible  meat.  The  waste 
was  found  to  be  about  as  follows  for  a  fowl  weighing  seven 
pounds : 

Feathers  and  blood 8  ounces 

.  Offal 27         " 

Head,  bones,  shanks 8.2       " 

Total  loss 2  Ibs.  11.2      " 

Edible  meat  .  ....  4  Ibs.    4.8      " 


Capons  and  Caponizing. — Capons  are  castrated  males, 
or  males  with  the  sexual  organs  removed.  The  operation 
of  removing  the  testicles  is  called  caponizing.  These  organs 
are  within  the  body  cavity  of  the  fowl  attached  to  the  back 
and  lie  close  to  the  lungs  and  heart.  The  operation  is  a 
delicate  one,  and  special  instruments  are  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. By  following  directions  closely  the  amateur  may 
soon  become  expert.  Full  instructions  for  operating  are 


MARKETING  EGGS  AND  POULTRY 


373 


furnished  with  the  instru- 
ments, and  these  need  not 
be  repeated  here.  The 
operation  consists  in  mak- 
ing an  incision  near  the 
thigh  and  between  the  two 
last  ribs  and  removing  the 
testicles  with  the  proper 
instrument. 

The  object  in  caponizing 
is  to  produce  a  better  qual- 
ity of  flesh  and  to  make 
the  surplus  cockerels  more 
marketable.  A  capon  will 
sell  for  practically  twice 
as  much  per  pound,  and 
often  more,  than  a  mature 


HENRY   DANA   SMITH    (MASS.) 

Who  caponizes  4,000  cockerels  a  year  and 
sells  them  as  "soft  roosters."  Mr.  Smith  is 
very  expert  and  averages  about  50  an  hour. 
(Photo  by  A.  G.  Lunn.) 


DRESSED  CAPON 

rooster.  Under  pres- 
ent conditions,  how- 
ever, it  will  pay  to  sell 
the  males  as  broilers 
when  the  broiler  mar- 
ket is  good.  This  ap- 
plies where  the  chicks 
are  hatched  early.  The 
capon  market,  except 
in  isolated  cases,  is  not 
yet  highly  developed. 
It  will  develop  as  con- 
sumers become  edu- 
cated to  the  superior 
meat  quality  of  the 
capon.  As  indicating 
the  possibilities,  it  may 


374  POULTRY   BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

be  stated  that  capons,  canned  in  France,  are  for  sale  in  the 
large  cities  of  this  country  and  at  high  prices.  If  cockerels 
are  to  be  kept  till  the  fall  it  will  pay  the  farmer  to  caponize 
them  and  keep  them  till  January  or  February,  when  the 
market  is  good  for  roasting  chickens.  Capons  are  quiet 
and  docile,  do  not  crow  or  fight,  and  sometimes  make  ex- 
cellent mothers  for  chicks. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

DISEASES  AND  PARASITES  OF  FOWLS 

A  knowledge  of  poultry  diseases  is  of  value  to  the  poultry- 
keeper  more  in  enabling  him  to  locate  unfavorable  hygienic 
conditions  than  in  the  curing  of  diseases.  In  the  discussion 
of  poultry  management  in  general  the  author  has  en- 
deavored to  keep  prominently  to  the  fore  the  great  im- 
portance of  proper  sanitary  conditions  as  a  means  cl  main- 
taining health  or  of  avoiding  diseases  as  much  as  possible. 
In  other  words,  the  poultryman  must  rely  rather  on  pre- 
ventive measures  than  on  curative  treatment  to  maintain 
his  flock  on  a  healthy,  profitable  basis.  It  is  an  unprofitable 
business  to  be  continually  fighting  diseases  and  treating  sick 
fowls  when  a  knowledge  of  simple  hygienic  rules  will 
enable  the  poultry-keeper  to  prevent  diseases  and  obviate 
treatment.  As  a  rule,  it  does  not  pay  to  treat  sick  fowls. 
An  individual  fowl,  on  the  average,  is  worth  too  little  to 
pay  to  treat;  besides  fowls  suffering  from  contagious  dis- 
eases are  a  menace  to  the  rest  of  the  flock  and  the  sooner 
they  are  gotten  rid  of  the  better. 

There  are,  however,  certain  diseases  or  ailments  that  are 
amenable  to  simple  treatment,  and  if  the  poultryman 
possesses  the  requisite  knowledge  of  the  ailment  and  its 
treatment,  he  may  often  save  himself  considerable  loss. 

Hygienic  Conditions. — The  importance  of  the  subject 
warrants  recapitulation  here  of  what  has  already  been  em- 
phasized in  different  chapters  of  proper  sanitary  or  hygienic 
conditions. 

Fresh  Air. — Fresh  air  is  not  only  an  egg  producer  but  a 
health  preserver  as  well.  Many  of  our  pouftry  diseases  are 

375: 


376  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  result  of  keeping  the  fowls  in  ill-ventilated  houses.  A 
lack  of  vigor  is  often  the  result  of  impure  air.  Diseases  of 
the  respiratory  organs,  such  as  catarrh,  roup  and  colds, 
thrive  only  in  ill-ventilated  houses.  It  is  useless  to  treat 
for  such  diseases  fowls  that  are  kept  in  houses  that  breed 
disease  by  bad  ventilation. 

Fresh  Ground. — Next  to  fresh  air,  fresh  ground  is  the 
best  preventive  of  disease.  Many  diseases  having  to  do 
with  digestive  organs  thrive  where  no  attention  is  paid  to 
keeping  the  ground  on  which  the  chickens  run  fresh  and 
clean.  Tuberculosis,  cholera  and  other  diseases  are  usually 
contracted  by  the  fowls  picking  up  from  the  ground  feed 
that  has  come  in  contact  with  the  germs  of  the  disease. 
Various  parasites,  such  as  gapes  and  tape  worm,  are  taken 
up  by  the  fowl  in  this  way.  An  unclean  feeding-ground  is 
a  fruitful  source  of  disease. 

Fresh  air  and  fresh  ground  are  the  cheapest  things  at 
the  command  of  the  poultry-keeper  and  when  he  learns  to 
make  full  use  of  them  there  will  be  comparatively  little 
danger  from  poultry  diseases. 

No  flock  of  chickens,  however,  is  entirely  immune  from 
diseases.  In  spite  of  the  best  sanitary  conditions,  diseases 
will  sometimes  get  into  the  flock  and  remedial  measures 
will  be  necessary. 

Cleanliness. — The  nest  boxes  should  not  be  a  breeding 
place  for  germ  diseases  and  insect  pests.  They  should  be 
frequently  cleaned  and  disinfected.  The  droppings  should 
not  be  allowed  to  accumulate,  and  on  no  account  should  the 
night  droppings  be  allowed  to  fall  and  mix  with  the  litter 
on  the  floor  if  the  floor  is  used  for  a  feeding-  or  scratching- 
ground.  The  litter  should  be  kept  reasonably  clean  and 
dry. 

Disinfection. — The  culture  treatment  of  yards  is  dis- 
cussed in  another  chapter.  If  cultivation  and  cropping 


DISEASES  AND   PARASITES  OF  FOWLS  377 

can  be  regularly  and  thoroughly  done  there  will  be  little 
need  of  other  treatment  of  the  soil  to  destroy  infection.  It 
may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  disinfect  the  feeding- 
grounds.  The  most  common  method,  probably,  is  the  use 
of  quick  lime.  Fresh  lime  should  be  air-slaked  and  broken 
into  a  floury  powder  and  sprinkled  over  the  ground  until 
white.  To  prevent  burning  the  chickens '  feet  the  earth 
may  be  raked  over  it  a  little.  For  the  houses  various  disin- 
fectants are  used.  For  bacterial  diseases  such  as  roup, 
tuberculosis,  and  cholera,  formaldehyde  may  be  used  at  the 
rate  of  1  pint  to  20  gallons  of  water.  This  should  be  ap- 
plied with  a  spray  pump.  The  walls,  ceiling,  floor,  roosts 
and  nests  should  be  thoroughly  drenched  with  the  spray. 

Boiling  water  may  be  used  for  articles  such  as  drinking 
vessels,  small  feeding-troughs,  etc.,  dipping  them  in  the 
water.  Commercial  germicides  such  as  Zenoleum  and 
Kreso  dip  may  also  be  used  as  disinfectants.  In  small 
houses  that  may  be  closed  up  tight,  probably  the  most 
effective  disinfection  is  to  fumigate  with  formaldehyde  gas. 
Use  at  the  rate  of  16  ounces  of  40%  formaldehyde  to  6 
ounces  of  permanganate  of  potash,  per  1,000  cubic  feet 
air  space.  Put  the  permanganate  in  a  jar  and  pour  the 
formaldehyde  into  it  and  then  quickly  leave  the  house  and 
close  the  door.  Leave  the  house  closed  for  two  or  three 
hours.  This  is  a  convenient  and  effective  method  of  disin- 
fecting incubators  as  well  as  houses. 

Disinfecting  Drinking  Water. — Germ  diseases  such  as 
roup,  canker  and  chicken-pox  are  frequently  spread  among 
the  flock  through  the  water  in  drinking  vessels.  Where 
there  are  any  indications  of  such  diseases  it  is  well  to  use 
permanganate  of  potash  in  the  drinking  water,  using  about 
a  fourth  teaspoonful  to  a  gallon  of  water.  Permanganate 
ordinarily  is  cheap,  and  should  be  liberally  used. 

It  is  known  that  disease  germs  are  more  virulent  after 


378          POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

they  have  passed  from  one  animal  to  another.  The  germs 
may  be  passed  in  the  excrement  or  droppings  of  the  diseased 
fowl  even  before  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  manifest. 
They  may  be  passed  in  countless  numbers,  and  if  the  drop- 
pings come  in  contact  with  the  food  another  fowl  takes 
them  up  and  the  germs,  in  all  likelihood  in  a  more  virulent 
form,  enter  the  body  of  another  and  cause  disease. 

Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis  is  a  germ  disease  and  is 
probably  the  most  destructive  of  all  diseases  of  mature 
fowls.  The  disease  progresses  slowly  and  may  be  well  ad- 
vanced before  the  symptoms  are  noticed.  Avian  tuberculosis 
was  first  reported  in  this  country  by  Professor  Pernot  of 
the  Oregon  Agricultural  College  in  1900  (Bulletin  64),  and 
to  him  the  author  is  indebted  largely  for  the  facts  herein 
presented  in  regard  to  this  disease.  The  most  pronounced 
symptoms  of  tuberculosis  are  lameness  and  loss  of  flesh. 
Tubercular  fowls,  however,  often  have  the  disease  without 
lameness,  but  lameness  is  often  associated  with  the  disease. 
On  the  other  hand,  lameness  does  not  always  indicate 
tuberculosis,  as  it  may  be  due  to  other  causes.  In  advanced 
stages  there  is  great  loss  of  flesh  or  wasting.  There  is  no 
loss  of  appetite. 

Seat  of  Disease. — As  the  organisms  enter  the  body  with 
food,  the  disease  is  more  commonly  found  in  the  digestive 
tract  and  the  liver  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  anatomy. 
Many  cases  of  the  disease  in  its  advanced  forms  fail  to 
show  any  lesions  of  the  lungs.  There  are  two  common  forms 
that  are  easily  detected;  one  is  a  fibroid  growth  on  the 
intestines  varying  in  size  from  a  pinhead  to  a  lump  as  large 
as  a  walnut.  In  cutting  through  these  tubercles,  they  will 
be  found  to  contain  a  substance  varying  from  a  serous 
fluid  to  a  rather  dry,  cheesy  mass  according  to  their  size 
and  age.  It  frequently  happens  that  when  a  tubercle  on 
the  intestine  becomes  the  size  of  a  large  pea,  the  mucous 


DISEASES  AND  PARASITES  OF  FOWLS  379 

membrane  and  wall  of  the  intestine  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
tubercle  breaks  down  and  discharges  the  contents  of  the 
tubercle  into  the  foecal  matter  that  is  passing  through  the 
intestine,  thus  carrying  out  with  the  excreta  a  great  num- 
ber of  living  tubercle  bacilli. 

' '  The  liver  is  the  other  organ  commonly  affected.  When 
the  tubercle  bacillus  finds  its  way  into  the  liver  and  begins 
to  grow,  a  yellowish  spot  is  soon  formed,  increasing  in  size 
as  the  disease  progresses.  The  structure  of  the  tissue  at 
this  point  is  changed  to  a  hard  granular  mass  containing 
within  it  the  bacilli  and  the  same  substance  as  found  in  the 
intestinal  tubercle.  The  growth  of  the  tubercles  necessarily 
increases  the  size  of  the  liver  until  it  sometimes  becomes 
twice  its  normal  size,  and  the  tubercles  are  frequently  so 
numerous  as  to  give  the  liver  the  appearance  of  peanut 
taffy. 

"  There  are  other  spots  of  similar  appearance  sometimes 
found  on  the  liver  that  must  not  be  mistaken  for  tubercles. 
A  crude  way  of  distinguishing  tubercular  lesions  is  by  the 
fibroid  tissue  of  a  tubercle  being  tougher  and  harder  than 
the  structure  of  the  other  spots  mentioned,  and  by  the 
center  being  filled  with  a  substance  as  before  described. 
Sometimes  the  disease  is  scattered  all  through  the  internal 
organs,  and  tubercles  may  be  found  even  on  the  heart." — • 
Fernet. 

The  only  certain  method  of  diagnosing  the  disease  is  a 
bacteriological  examination.  The  germ  is  a  small  organism 
measuring  on  an  average  3/25000  of  an  inch  in  length  and 
can  only  be  seen  through  a  microscope.  Poultrymen  should 
avail  themselves  of  the  services  of  the  bacteriologist  of  the 
experiment  station  if  they  are  suspicious  of  this  disease  in 
their  flocks.  Many  of  the  stations  have  facilities  for  doing 
this  work  without  charge. 

It  is  not  definitely  known  that  bovine  or  human  tuber- 


380  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

culosis  is  transmitted  to  fowls.  Pernot,  though  recognizing 
different  types  of  tubercle  bacilli,  recognizes  the  possibility 
of  transmission  and  urges  caution.  Other  investigators 
have  failed  to  produce  the  disease  in  the  fowl  with  the 
bovine  or  human  bacillus. 

Tuberculosis  is  not  transmitted  through  the  egg  to  the 
chick.  Some  investigators  point  to  the  possibility  of  trans- 
mission, but  the  possibilities  are  so  remote  as  to  be  without 
significance  to  the  poultryman. 

There  is  no  known  cure  for  the  disease.  Proper  sanita- 
tion and  prompt  destruction  of  affected  fowls  must  be 
relied  upon  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  the  disease.  There 
is  no  reason  for  alarm  if  the  poultryman  makes  full  use  of 
fresh  air,  fresh  ground  and  sunshine  in  the  management 
of  his  flock.  If  particular  care  be  taken  in  this  respect  the 
disease  will  not  get  much  headway.  The  .frequent  renewal 
of  the  stock,  killing  off  the  old  and  replacing  them  with 
young,  is  a  favorable  factor  in  the  control  of  the  disease. 
The  poultryman  would  do  well  before  purchasing  fowls 
to  inspect  the  flock  from  which  they  come  and  secure  them 
only  from  flocks  that  show  no  indications  of  disease. 

A  Tuberculin  Test. — Until  the  year  1914  there  was  no 
known  method  of  testing  live  tuberculous  fowls.  Bovine 
tuberculin  has  been  proved  valueless  for  this  purpose.  In 
that  year  Dr.  Van  Es  of  the  North  Dakota  Station  discov- 
ered that  avian  tuberculin,  when  properly  used,  is  an  almost 
certain  test  of  the  disease.  The  tuberculin  is  injected  into 
the  comb  or  wattles.  The  injection  must  be  made  near  the 
surface,  but  not  so  near  that  the  fluid  may  burst  through 
the  epithelium.  In  the  experiments  noted  the  results  were 
ascertained  in  from  24  to  72  hours.  The  reactions  consist 
of  a  swelling  and  discoloration  of  the  part  injected,  the  size 
of  the  swelling  varying  considerably  in  different  cases.  The 
swellings  or  reactions,  in  Van  Es's  experiments,  indicated 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   FOWLS 


381 


a  tuberculous  condition  in  88  cases  out  of  90.  On  the  other 
hand,  8  to  9%  of  the  fowls  showing  no  reactions  were  found 
to  be  tuberculous. 

Should  this  test  prove  to  be  as  successful  in  the  hands  of 
others  as  it  has  been  in  the  experiments  reported,  it  is  a 
discovery  that  marks  a  most  important  advance. 

Roup. — Many  poultrymen  believe  that  roup  and  the 
kindred  affection,  catarrh,  are  the  most  troublesome  diseases 
of  poultry.  Roup  proper  is  believed  to  be  a  contagious  germ 

disease.     Catarrh,  exhibit-     , 

ing  practically  the  same 
symptoms,  is  not  conta- 
gious, being  produced  usu- 
ally by  improper  housing. 
The  specific  organism  pro- 
ducing roup  has  not  been 
discovered. 

Symptoms. — It  usually 
begins  with  a  watery  dis- 
charge from  the  nostrils 
and  eyes,  which  as  the  dis- 
ease progresses,  becomes 
thicker  and  of  the  nature 
of  pus.  The  nostrils  become  clogged,  interfering  with 
breathing,  and  there  is  usually  a  swelling  around  the  eyes. 
The  swelling  often  grows  until  the  eye  is  closed  entirely. 
The  disease  frequently  spreads  to  the  mouth  and  throat  and 
assumes  the  character  of  diphtheria,  when  death  soon 
results. 

Treatment. — The  only  hope  of  curing  is  in  recognizing 
the  disease  in  its  first  stages  and  applying  remedies. 
Permanganate  of  potash  of  a  2%  solution  has  been  suc- 
cessfully used.  The  head  of  the  bird  should  be  dipped 
in  the  solution  and  held  there  as  long  as  possible  without 


A  BAD  CASE  OF  ROUP  IN  ITS 
ADVANCED  STAGE 

(Courtesy,  Prof.  T.  D.  Beckwith,  Bac- 
teriological Department,  Oregon  Experi- 
ment Station.) 


382  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

strangling  the  bird.  The  success  of  the  treatment  depends 
upon  getting  the  solution  into  the  nostrils.  This  treatment 
should  be  continued  two  or  three  times  daily  until  a  cure 
is  affected.  Kerosene  is  also  an  effective  remedy.  The  face 
should  be  washed  with  a  feather  dipped  in  the  oil  and  a 
little  oil  injected  up  the  nostrils.  If  the  mouth  or  throat  are 
affected  they  should  also  be  swabbed  out  with  a  feather 
dipped  in  the  oil.  Peroxide  of  hydrogen  is  also  used  suc- 
cessfully for  injecting  into  the  nostrils  and  swabbing  out 
the  throat.  If  the  swelling  on  the  face  has  reached  a  stage 
that  pus  has  formed,  an  incision  should  be  made,  the  pus 
removed,  and  the  sore  washed  out  with  the  permanganate 
solution  or  with  the  peroxide  of  hydrogen.  When  the  dis- 
ease has  reached  that  stage,  however,  treatment  will  not 
often  be  successful  and  it  will  not  pay  unless  the  fowl 
has  some  special  value.  The  sick  fowls  should  be  isolated 
and  the  premises  disinfected.  Care  should  be  exercised  in 
introducing  new  fowls,  and  it  is  a  safe  practice  to  put  them 
in  quarantine  several  days  before  putting  them  with  the 
rest  of  the  flock. 

Catarrh. — Possibly  in  the  large  majority  of  cases,  what 
is  thought  to  be  roup  is  simply  catarrh  or  colds.  The 
symptoms  are  practically  the  same.  The  treatment  of 
affected  fowls  recommended  for  roup  may  be  followed  for 
catarrh.  When  colds  or  catarrh  appear  it  is  a  sure  indica- 
tion that  something  is  the  matter  with  the  housing.  The 
fowls  may  be  crowded  too  closely  together  on  the  roost ; 
there  may  be  cracks  in  the  walls  through  which  the  wind 
blows  strongly  on  the  chickens,  or  there  may  be  insufficient 
ventilation. 

Diphtheria. — This  is  not  an  uncommon  disease  among 
fowls  and  it  is  very  fatal.  A  false  membrane  grows  in  the 
mouth  and  extends  down  into  the  throat.  Treatment  is  not 
often  successful.  Kaupp  (Colorado,  Bulletin  185)  recom- 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   FOWLS  383 

mends  the  burning  of  the  diphtheritic  patches  of  the 
mouth  with  stick  nitrate  of  silver  (lunar  caustic).  A  2% 
solution  of  pure  carbolic  acid  in  water  applied  three  times 
daily  to  affected  birds  is  also  recommended.  When  it  can 
be  done  without  causing  bleeding,  the  diphtheritic  mem- 
brane should  be  removed  and  the  application  of  carbolic 
acid  continued.  The  germ  of  fowl  diphtheria  resembles 
that  of  the  human  species.  Attempts  at  the  Oregon  Station 
to  reproduce  the  disease  in  chickens  by  human  baccili 
failed,  though  further  investigation  seems  necessary  to 
settle  this  point.  In  the  meantime,  poultrymen  should  ex- 
ercise care  in  the  handling  of  fowls  affected  with  this 
disease. 

Chicken  Pox. — This  is  a  contagious  disease  and  most 
prevalent  in  damp  weather.  Small  crusts  or  wart-like  spots 
appear,  sometimes  on  the  face,  sometimes  under  the  wings 
and  on  different  parts  of  the  body.  A  simple  and  effective 
remedy  is  to  apply  to  the  birds  affected  carbolated  vaseline 
or  sulphur  ointment. 

Cholera. — This  is  the  most  fatal  of  all  diseases,  though 
not  as  general  as  roup  and  tuberculosis.  It  is  compara- 
tively rare.  The  symptoms  are  diarrhoea,  loss  of  appetite, 
excessive  thirst,  pale  comb  and  wattles  and  extreme  ex- 
haustion. Death  occurs  in  from  a  few  hours  to  two  or 
three  days.  There  is  no  cure.  Vigorous  measures  of  disin- 
fection must  be  taken. 

Canker. — Canker  is  indicated  by  white  or  yellowish  spots 
in  the  mouth  and  throat  and  corners  of  the  mouth.  Per- 
oxide of  hydrogen  is  effective.  Powdered  chlorate  of 
potash  blown  through  a  glass  tube  or  straw  onto  the  spots 
is  also  recommended.  Use  permanganate  of  potash  in  the 
drinking  water. 

Diarrhoea. — There  are  various  causes  for  diarrhoea  be- 
sides those  already  mentioned.  It  may  be  caused  by  im- 


384  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

proper  feeding,  chilling,  filthy  drinking  water,  decayed 
meat,  and  irritating  matter  in  the  intestines.  A  tablespoon- 
ful  of  olive  oil  or  25  grains  of  epsom  salts  per  fowl,  dis- 
solved in  water,  is  recommended.  Boiled  rice  and  boiled 
milk  are  also  effective.  Dry  middlings  are  also  beneficia] 
in  certain  cases.  Decreasing  the  quantity  of  laxative  foods 
such  as  bran  and  wet  mashes  may  often  be  all  that  is 
necessary. 

Dropsy. — Abdominal  dropsy  is  indicated  by  a  heavy 
hanging  abdomen.  The  abdomen  feels  soft  and  watery. 
It  is  due  to  a  rupture  of  the  blood  vessel  which  permits  the 
water  to  escape  into  the  abdominal  cavity.  Treatment  is 
not  profitable,  though  temporary  relief  may  be  given  by 
puncturing  with  a  needle,  or  milk  tube,  which  will  permit 
the  water  to  escape.  Dropsy  sometimes  indicates  a  tuber- 
culous condition. 

Bronchitis. — Bronchitis  is  caused  usually  by  draughts 
in  the  poultry  house.  It  is  found  associated  with  catarrhal 
roup  and  is  indicated  by  coughing  and  rattling  in  the 
throat.  An  effective  treatment  is  two  or  three  drops  of 
spirits  of  camphor  in  a  teaspoonful  of  glycerine,  two  days 
in  succession.  Two  grains  of  black  antimony  in  the  food 
is  also  recommended.  Swab  the  throat  with  permanganate 
of  potash. 

Peritonitis. — This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum 
or  membrane  that  covers  the  abdominal  cavity.  Successful 
treatment  is  difficult.  Three  or  four  grains  of  tincture  of' 
aconite  in  half  a  glass  of  water,  giving  a  teaspoonful  three 
or  four  times  a  day,  is  recommended.  J^requent  applica- 
tion of  moist  flannel  cloths  is  beneficial. 

Rheumatism. — Poultry  kept  on  damp  ground  or  in  damp 
houses  with  restricted  exercise,  are  subject  to  rheumatism. 
The  fowl  in  walking  has  a  jerky  gait.  Lameness  does  not 
always  signify  rheumatism.  The  limbs  should  be  bathed 


DISEASES  AND  PARASITES  OF   FOWLS  385 

in  warm  water  or  the  fowls  made  to  stand  in  warm  water, 
then  rubbed  dry  and  a  mixture  of  turpentine  and  sweet 
oil  or  camphor  oil  applied. 

Apoplexy. — Apoplexy  is  due  to  the  bursting  of  a  blood 
vessel  of  the  brain.  Treatment  is  impossible,  as  the  fowl 
usually  dies  very  suddenly  without  indicating  the  disease. 
A  fatty  condition  is  usually  the  cause.  Less  starchy  foods 
should  be  fed  and  more  exercise  given. 

Limber  Neck. — Apparent  paralysis  of  the  neck  muscles 
is  the  symptom  of  this  disease.  The  neck  is  limp  and 
stretched  out  in  front  of  the  bird  with  the  beak  usually 
touching  the  ground.  It  is  due  to  impaction  or  stoppage 
of  the  stomach.  A  tablespoonful  of  olive  oil  or  castor  oil 
will  usually  effect  a  cure. 

Wry-Neck. — In  this  case  the  fowl  has  also  apparently 
lost  control  of  the  neck.  Instead  of  the  neck  being  stretched 
out  in  a  horizontal  direction,  the  head  is  drawn  back  and 
down  toward  the  body,  the  bird  twisting  it  from  one  side 
to  the  other.  This  disease  is  usually  associated  with  an 
over-fat  condition,  produced  by  a  lack  of  exercise  and 
feeding  heavily  on  fat-producing  foods.  Epsom  salts  should 
be  given,  the  ration  changed  and  more  exercise  furnished. 

Crop  Bound. — This  is  indicated  by  a  full  and  extended 
crop  which  is  rather  hard  to  touch.  Foods  of  a  fibrous 
nature  or  indigestible  articles  such  as  long,  tough  grass, 
which  have  been  greedily  eaten,  produce  crop  bound  or 
crop  impaction.  Irregular  feeding  may  cause  the  fowl  to 
over-eat  at  one  time  and  produce  the  trouble.  The 
materials  in  the  crop  become  so  wrapped  together  and  im- 
pacted that  the  passage  to  the  stomach  becomes  obstructed 
and  the  fowl  gets  no  nourishment.  Hunger  increases,  the 
fowl  eats  more,  and  the  ball  of  food  in  the  crop  becomes 
larger  and  larger.  The  grain  foods  swell,  causing  further 
distention.  The  fowl  finally  dies  of  starvation  with  an  over 


386  POULTRY  BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

full  crop.  Simple  treatment,  however,  will  save  the  life  of 
the  fowl. 

It  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  give  about  a  tablespoonful  of 
olive  oil  to  soften  the  mass,  then  with  the  fingers  manipulate 
the  mass  until  it  becomes  soft  and  moist.  It  may  require 
an  hour  to  do  it.  If  the  mass  does  not  break  up  try  holding 
the  bird  by  the  legs,  head  down,  and  gently  work  the  food 
out  of  the  mouth.  If  this  is  unsuccessful,  resort  must  be 
had  to  an  operation.  After  removing  the  feathers,  an  in- 
cision li/2  inches  long  should  be  made  in  the  outer  skin  of 
the  crop,  then  a  small  opening  into  the  crop.  With  a  small 
spoon  or  pair  of  tweazers,  or  the  fingers,  the  contents  may 
be  removed,  after  which  the  lining  of  the  crop  and  the 
outer  skin  should  be  carefully  sewed  together,  separately. 
The  wound  should  then  be  rubbed  with  vaseline.  Feed  the 
fowl  lightly  for  a  few  days  with  easily  digested  food. 

Chick  Mortality. — Poultry  raisers  sustain  great  losses  in 
the  rearing  of  chicks.  The  losses  have  been  so  great  in 
many  cases  as  to  drive  the  poultry  raiser  out  of  business. 
A  large  part  of  the  loss  is  ascribed  to  what  is  called  white 
diarrhoea.  It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  there  are 
different  forms  of  diarrhoea  in  chicks.  Diarrhoea  may  be 
caused  in  many  ways.  Possibly  in  a  great  majority  of  cases 
where  the  losses  are  heavy  the  diarrhoea  in  brooder  chicks 
is  due  to  chilling.  Improper  feeding  will  also  cause 
diarrhoea.  In  such  cases  the  loss  is  not  due  to  an  infectious 
disease  over  which  the  poultryman  has  no  control.  Again, 
large  losses  of  chicks  occur  in  the  brooder  from  apparently 
no  other  cause  than  a  lack  of  vitality. 

Wrong  methods  of  incubation,  which  are  discussed  in 
the  chapter  on  hatching  chickens,  are  often  the  direct  cause. 
Lack  of  vigor  in  the  breeding  stock  is  often  the  cause  of  low 
vitality  in  the  chicks.  A  hen  failing  to  sit  properly  and 
contentedly  on  the  nest  will  hatch  chicks  that  show  lack 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES  OF   FOWLS 


387 


NORMAL   HEN'S   OVARY 
(Courtesy,  Storrs  Experiment  Station.) 


of  vigor.  Incubators 
that  have  not  held  the 
temperature  steady  or 
have  not  supplied  the 
proper  moisture  condi- 
tions, will  hatch  chicks 
of  low  vitality.  Such 
chicks  are  susceptible  to 
bacterial  and  other  dis- 
eases that  would  not 
affect  strong,  vigorous 
chicks.  Small  chicks  are 
always  very  susceptible 
to  environmental  condi- 
tions, and  where  these  conditions  are  found  to  be  unfav- 
orable it  is  quickly  evident  in  the  death-rate  of  the 
chicks. 

White  Diarrhoea  (Bacterium  pullorum). — From  recent 
investigations,  it  is  clear  that  bacteria  are  responsible  for  a 

large  part  of  the  chick 
mortality.  A  certain 
germ,  bacterium  pullo- 
rum, was  isolated  at  the 
Storrs  Station  which 
proved  to  be  the  direct 
cause  of  what  is  popu- 
larly known  as  white 
diarrhoea.  Diarrhoea  is 
but  a  symptom  of  the 
disease,  which  should 
not  be  confounded  with 
various  other  kinds  of 
diarrhoea.  The  germ 
was  found  in  the  fresh 


DISEASED  OVARY 

Showing  white  diarrhoea  condition.      (Cour- 
tesy, Storrs  Experiment  Station.) 


388  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

egg  and  in  the  ovaries  of  the  hen,  as  well  as  in  the  chick 
when  hatched.  A  diseased  ovary  produced  a  dis- 
eased ovum  or  egg,  and  a  diseased  egg  produced 
a  diseased  chick,  and  a  diseased  chick  may  infest 
many  other  chicks  in  the  brooder.  It  was  also 
proved  that  the  infection  may  be  carried  from  the  adult 
hen  to  another  through  the  medium  of  the  feed.  Chicks 
of  low  vitality  succumb  more  readily  to  the  infection  than 
those  of  good  vigor.  Again,  chicks  hatched  in  winter  and 
late  fall  are  not  so  subject  to  the  disease  as  those  in  late 
spring  and  summer. 

The  influence  of  vitality  is  very  clearly  apparent.  How 
far  we  can  count  upon  vitality  to  ward  off  the  disease  or  to 
maintain  immunity,  is  not  clearly  established  by  the  ex- 
periments. They  emphasize  the  importance,  however,  of 
maintaining  at  all  hazards  the  vitality  of  the  stock.  They 
also  offer  a  possible  explanation  of  the  usually  larger  death- 
rate  of  chicks  in  large  flocks  than  in  small  ones.  One  hen 's 
chicks  may  be  affected,  another's  may  not.  If  the  chicks 
from  two  hens  are  brooded  separately,  the  chances  are  the 
one  lot  will  live  and  the  other  may  die.  If  they  are  brooded 
together,  they  all  may  become  affected  and  all  may  die. 

In  white  diarrhoea  the  deaths  usually  occur  when  the 
chicks  are  under  four  weeks  of  age.  In  describing  the 
symptoms  of  the  disease,  Woods  says:  "The  weakling  is 
almost  always  big  bellied,  the  abdomen  protruding  to  the 
rear  so  that  it  punches  out  behind,  and  out  of  line  with 
the  vent,  with  the  result  that  the  chick  looks  as  if  the  tail- 
piece and  backbone  had  been  pushed  forward  and  in  just 
above  the  vent."  Upon  dissecting  the  chick  the  following 
conditions  will  be  found : 

"Crop. — Empty  or  partially  filled  with  slimy  fluid  or 
with  food. 


DISEASES  AND  PARASITES  OF  FOWLS  389 

"Lungs. — Apparently  normal.    ( Tubercles  not  observed. ) 

"Liver. — Pale,  with  streaks  and  patches  of  red.  The 
congested  areas  are  usually  large  in  size.  Occasionally 
epidemics  will  be  met  with  in  which  the  liver  is  more  or 
less  congested  throughout.  In  such  cases  the  portion  of 
the  stomach  lying  in  contact  with  the  liver  is  inflamed. 

"Kidney  and  Spleen. — Apparently  normal. 

"Intestines. — Pale,  and  for  the  greater  part  empty.    A 


TWO  WHITE  DIARRHCEA  CHICKS 
Showing    characteristic    dumpy    appearance. 

small  amount  of  dark  grayish  or  brownish  matter  fre- 
quently present. 

Ceca. — With  few  exceptions  but  partly  filled  with  a  gray- 
ish soft  material.  Only  occasionally  cheesy  or  firm  con- 
tents. 

"U  nab  sorb  ed  Yolk. — Usually  present,  varying  in  size 
from  a  pea  to  a  full-sized  yolk.  The  color  may  vary  from 
yellow  to  brownish  green  or  nearly  black.  In  consistency 
there  is  also  much  variation.  It  may  appear  perfectly 
normal,  distinctly  gelatinous,  or  watery.  Frequently  it 


390  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 

looks  like  custard  and  again  it  is  more  or  less  dry  and  firm. 
Unless  the  chick  has  been  dead  for  some  time  the  yolk  is 
not  putrid,  but  merely  stale. 

"The  chick  as  a  whole  appears  more  or  less  anasmic  and 
emaciated.  The  muscles  of  the  wings,  breast  and  legs  may 
be  almost  completely  wasted  away."  (Bulletin  74,  Storrs 
Station.) 

The  remedy  suggested  is  the  use  of  sour  milk,  though  this 
is  rather  in  the  nature  of  a  preventive  than  a  cure.  The 
chicks  usually  become  affected  before  they  are  four  days 
of  age  and  very  seldom  after  that.  It  has  been  found  that 
by  feeding  sour  milk  just  as  soon  as  the  chicks  are  ready 
to  eat  or  drink,  the  ravages  of  the  disease  may  be  checked. 
"Whether  the  lactic  acid  germ  of  the  sour  milk  kills  the  white 
diarrhoea  germ  or  whether  from  the  sour  milk  the  chick 
derives  the  strength  and  vigor  that  enables  it  to  throw  off 
the  disease,  has  not  been  very  clearly  shown.  At  any  rate, 
the  Storrs  experiment  offers  strong  endorsement  of  the 
practice  of  feeding  sour  milk  or  buttermilk  to  young 
chicks. 

That  there  are  other  disease  germs  which  prey  upon  the 
young  chick  has  been  demonstrated  at  the  Oregon  Station. 
A  different  organism  was  found  in  chicks  dead  in  the  shell 
and  in  hatched  chicks  that  died  later  with  symptoms  of 
white  diarrhoea.  "When  healthy  chicks  were  inoculated 
with  the  germ  it  proved  fatal,  though  when  healthy  chicks 
were  brooded  in  the  same  brooder  as  the  others  they  were 
apparently  unaffected. 

So  far  as  the  white  diarrhoea  investigations  have  gone 
it  has  been  established  beyond  doubt  that  it  is  a  bacterial 
disease.  No  remedy  has  been  discovered.  It  has  not  been 
shown,  however,  that  the  poultry-keeper  is  helpless  before 
its  ravages.  The  encouraging  feature  of  the  situation  is 
that  high  vitality  in  the  chicks  seems  to  carry  a  certain 


DISEASES  AND   PARASITES  OF   FOWLS  391 

immunity  or  power  of  resistance  to  the  disease,  and  until 
further  light  is  thrown  upon  the  subject,  it  is  just  as  well 
to  accept  the  theory  that  it  is  a  disease,  which  if  not  the 
result  of  low  vitality,  need  not  be  greatly  feared  where  the 
health  and  vigor  of  the  stock  is  unquestioned. 

The  Agglutination  Test. — While  there  is  no  known  cure 
for  bacillary  white  diarrhoea,  recent  investigations  by  Jones 
of  Cornell  University  have  indicated  an  accurate  test  for 


TAKING  A   BLOOD   SAMPLE  FOR  WHITE  DIARRHCEA  TEST 
(Photo  by  C.   S.  Brewster.) 

infected  fowls.  It  is  called  the  agglutination  test.  By  this 
test  it  is  possible  to  determine  whether  or  not  adult  fowls 
are  infected.  The  importance  of  the  test  lies  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  possible  for  the  poultryman  to  eliminate  this  dis- 
ease in  chicks  by  breeding  only  from  fowls  that  the  test 
shows  are  free  from  it.  Several  of  the  experiment  stations 
have  facilities  for  making  these  tests  for  poultry  breeders. 


392  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

An  explanation  of  the  test  is  given  by  Dr.  Gage  of  Massa- 
chusetts as  follows:1 

' '  The  two  important  biological  factors  necessary  for  mak- 
ing the  microscopic  agglutination  test  are  (1)  a  test  fluid 
containing  a  suspension  of  the  organism  causing  the  dis- 
ease, and  (2)  a  sample' of  blood  serum  from  the  individual 
to  be  tested,  and  the  test  is  based  on  the  fact  that  the  blood 
sera  of  infected  and  non-infected  birds  when  mixed  with 
the  test  fluid  react  differently.  The  serum  of  the  former, 
because  of  the  presence  of  an  agglutinin,  a  substance  formed 
in  the  body  of  the  bird  because  of  infection  with  Bacterium 
pullorum,  is  capable  of  producing,  when  brought  in  contact 
with  a  suspension  of  the  organism,  a  clumping  together  of 
the  bacteria,  a  phenomenon  which  blood  from  non-infected 
birds  does  not  show." 

PARASITES   OF   FOWLS 

The  poultry-keeper  must  be  able  to  cope  with  parasitic 
enemies  or  they  will  put  him  out  of  ^  business.  If  every 
living  thing  has  its  own  particular  pest,  the  fowl  has  its 
full  share,  probably  more  than  its  share.  There  are  a 
dozen  or  two  insect  pests  or  parasites  that  have  no  other 
business  in  life,  apparently,  than  that  of  making  life  a 
burden  to  the  chicken.  "We  do  not  know  how  many.  The 
number  of  varieties,  however,  is  of  no  consequence  com- 
pared with  the  number  of  individuals  of  any  one  variety 
that  may  be  propagated  or  born  into  the  world  in  a  few 
days.  From  one  single  louse  in  the  third  generation,  there 
may  be  produced  in  eight  or  nine  weeks  over  100,000  in- 
dividual lice,  each  one  hatched  from  an  egg. 

The  different  varieties  work  in  different  ways.  One 
variety  sucks  the  blood  from  the  chicken  and  when,  tens 

1  Massachusetts  Bulletin  No.  163. 


DISEASES  AND  PARASITES  OF  FOWLS  393 

of  thousands  of  these  bloodthirsty  villains  are  plying  their 
trade,  the  hen  will  soon  be  pumped  dry  of  blood.  Others 
do  not  suck  the  blood  but  irritate  the  fowl  beyond  endur- 
ance by  moving  about  or  running  foot  races,  possibly  with 
10,000  other  entrants,  on  the  skin.  Others  burrow  into 
the  skin  or  flesh ;  others  suck  the  liquid  contents  from  the 
cells  of  the  skin  and  exude  a  poison  under  the  skin.  Still 
others  do  their  damage  by  carrying  infectious  diseases  from 
one  fowl  to  another. 

The  internal  parasites  affect  the  wind-pipe,  the  stomach 
and  intestines  and  cause  various  derangements. 

Poultry  parasites  are  divided,  therefore,  into  two  classes, 
external  and  internal. 

External  parasites  may  be  divided  into  two  kinds,  namely, 
mites  and  insects. 

Mites. — The  chicken  mite  (Dermanyssus  gallinea)  causes 
more  loss  to  the  poultryman  than  any  other  species  of  mite 
and  probably  more  than  any  other  kind  of  insect  or  louse. 
These  mites  breed  on  the  under  side  of  the  roost  porches, 
especially  where  there  is  a  rough  surface  and  small  cracks 
or  crevices.  They  also  breed  in  the  cracks  of  the  walls  near 
the  perches  and  in  the  nest  boxes.  Their  presence  will 
often  be  indicated  by  white  dust-like  patches  on  the 
walls.  They  are  not  found  in  any  numbers  on  the  fowl 
during  the  day  but  they  crowd  out  of  their  hiding-places 
onto  the  fowls  at  night  and  suck  the  blood,  then  go  back 
to  their  hiding.  During  the  warm  days  of  spring  and  sum- 
mer they  multiply  rapidly. 

Frequently  sitting  hens  die  en  the  nest,  being  literally 
bled  to  death  by  the  pests.  Sometimes  they  multiply  so 
rapidly  that  they  can  be  gathered  by  handfuls  in  nests  or 
other  places  where  they  are  undisturbed,  especially  under 
sitting  hens.  They  live  several  weeks  after  being  filled  with 
blood.  Under  certain  conditions  they  have  been  known 


394  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

to  live  several  months.  In  size  the  mite  is  about  1/40  of 
an  inch  in  length.  If  placed  side  by  side  100  mites  will 
cover  a  space  of  one  square  inch. 

Control. — The  mite,  though  possibly  the  most  destructive 
of  any  poultry  parasite,  may  be  easily  controlled.  Various 
control  methods  are  used. 

Treatment  1. — Kerosene,  crude  petroleum,  and  distillate 
are  effective.  These  will  kill  any  mites  they  come  in  con- 
tact with.  The  oil,  however,  may  not  destroy  the  eggs  of 
the  mite.  If  the  house  is  badly  infested  the  whole  in- 
terior should  be  thoroughly  sprayed.  In  a  week  or  ten 
days  the  application  should  be  repeated  to  kill  those  that 
may  have  hatched  after  first  spraying,  and  if  necessary  a 
third  spraying  should  be  given.  If  this  is  thoroughly  done 
the  mites  may  afterward  be  controlled  by  spraying  the 
perches  with  kerosene  or  distillate,  or  a  brush  may  be  used 
and  the  oil  applied  all  around  the  roost.  The  nest  boxes 
should  also  be  treated. 

Treatment  2. — Instead  of  using  coal  oil  or  distillate  in 
spraying  the  roosts,  carbolineum  or  other  tar  preparations 
may  be  effectively  used.  Carbolineum  is  more  effective 
than  kerosene  for  the  reason  that  it  will  destroy  the  mites' 
eggs  as  well  as  the  mites  when  it  comes  in  contact  with  them. 
Nests  of  sitting  hens  should  be  thoroughly  painted  before 
sitting;  also  the  brooding  coops.  With  any  reappearance 
of  mites  the  application  should  be  repeated.  The  paint 
should  be  dry  before  the  hens  are  allowed  to  use  the  nests 
or  roosts.  It  will  soil  the  feathers  and  may  affect  the  flavor 
of  the  eggs.  Brood  coops  should  be  thoroughly  dried  after 
painting  or  the  chicks  may  be  injured.  Crude  carbolic  acid 
and  kerosene  or  distillate,  one  part  of  the  former  to  three 
of  the  latter,  is  very  effective  for  mites,  applied  as  a  paint 
on  the  roosts  and  nests. 

Treatment  3. — To  five  gallons  whitewash  add  one  pint 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   FOWLS  395 

crude  carbolic  acid.  Spray  as  above  or  use  whitewash  brush 
for  applying  it. 

Treatment  4. — Where  lime  sulphur  spray  is  used  for 
fruit  trees  it  may  also  be  used  for  spraying  the  poultry 
house.  If  thoroughly  done  this  should  control  the  mites. 

Lice. — Lice  are  not  so  injurious  as  the  mites  but  they 
must  not  be  allowed  to  breed  unchecked.  Unlike  the  mites 
they  do  not  suck  the  blood  but  subsist  upon  the  productions 
of  the  skin  and  the  feathers.  They  live  and  breed  on  their 
host.  There  are  three  kinds  of  lice  generally  recognized. 
First,  those  that  are  found  on  the  head  and  neck  of  the 
fowl  and  especially  on  young  chicks.  The  scientific  name 
is  Goniodes  eynsfordii.  Second,  the  wandering  lice 
(Menopon  pallidum).  These  are  found  on  different  parts 
of  the  body.  Third,  those  found  between  the  barbs  of  the 
wing  and  tail  feathers  (Liperurus  variabilis). 

The  conditions  which  encourage  the  breeding  of  these 
lice  are  filth,  dampness  and  darkness  in  the  poultry  house. 
The  eggs  are  laid  among  the  feathers  and  attached  to  them, 
especially  to  down  feathers.  They  hatch  out  in  from  six  to 
ten  days,  the  time  varying.  Lice  will  live  several  months 
without  the  hen  or  host.  Theobald  reports  keeping  Menopon 
pallidum  for  nine  months  on  fresh  feathers,  they  apparently 
eating  the  quill  epidermis. 

Dust  Bath. — Domestication  of  the  hen  can  be  carried  so 
far  and  no  farther,  and  this  fact  must  ever  be  remembered. 
It  might  seem  a  little  more  sanitary  or  civilized  for  the  hen 
to  keep  her  body  clean  by  using  a  white  enameled  bath  tub 
provided  with  hot  and  cold  water  taps,  or  to  have  a  chicken 
barber  shop  where  a  weekly  shampoo  may  be  had,  but  the 
hen  prefers  to  wallow  in  the  dust  of  the  road  or  in  a  crude 
box  filled  with  dust,  that  is  not  by  any  means  germ-proof. 
It  would  be  as  easy  to  make  water  run  up  hill  as  to  change 
the  nature  of  the  hen  when  it  comes  to  her  method  of  keep- 


396  POULTRY   BREEDING   AND   MANAGEMENT 

ing  the  body  clean.  The  dust  shampoo  rids  the  hen  of  the 
scurf  of  the  skin ;  besides  it  is  nature 's  protection  against 
the  pestiferous  louse  that  has  no  object  in  life  but  to  make 
living  a  burden  to  the  hen.  A  dust  bath  at  evening  gives 
biddy  a  restful  sleep ;  a  dust  bath  during  the  day  gives  her 
new  hope  and  happiness  and  permits  her  to  lay  her  daily 
egg  in  peace  and  to  chase  and  devour  other  larger  insects 
that  prey  upon  the  crops  of  the  field. 

The  hen  louse  must  breathe  to  live,  and  it  breathes 
through  the  pores  of  its  skin.  A  knowledge  of  this  simple 
fact  was  doubtless  the  clew  for  some  ancient  Edison  to 
invent  dust.  There  are  some  objections  to  dust,  but  there 
is  always  some  bitter  with  the  sweet,  and  to  biddy  dust 
tastes  sweeter  than  plum  jam  to  the  average  human  young- 
ster. The  hen  must  have  her  daily  dust  bath.  If  she  can- 
not get  it  in  the  fields  or  the  yards  it  must  be  furnished  in 
a  box  artificially,  but  she  must  have  it  to  cleanse  her  body 
in  the  old  natural  way.  It  fills  up  the  pores  of  the  louse 
and  prevents  breathing,  thus  killing  it. 

The  addition  of  sulphur,  pyrethrum  or  lime  to  the  dust 
makes  it  more  effective  on  account  of  their  irritating  nature. 
If  the  poultry  premises  are  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition, 
the  fowls  will  keep  themselves  practically  free  from  lice  if 
they  have  access  at  all  times  to  a  good  dust  bath.  By  dust- 
ing the  hen  by  hand  with  a  good  insect  powder,  the  lice  may 
be  gotten  rid  of  sooner,  but  this  entails  too  much  labor  to 
be  practicable  on  a  large  or  commercial  scale. 

Sulphur  and  slaked  lime  may  be  used  as  a  dust  powder. 
Another  good  powder  may  be  made  by  mixing  crude  car- 
bolic acid  90  to  95%  strength,  with  enough  plaster  of  paris 
to  make  a  dry  powder. 

Head  lice  on  small  chicks,  which  make  their  appearance 
a  day  or  two  after  the  chick  is  hatched,  may  be  killed  by 
rubbing  the  head  and  throat  of  the  chick  with  lard.  A  few 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   FOWLS  397 

drops  of  kerosene  to  a  teaspooiiful  of  lard  will  make  it 
more  effective,  but  much  kerosene  may  kill  the  chick.  If 
the  hen  be  carefully  treated  for  lice  while  sitting,  there 
will  be  less  trouble  from  the  head  lice  on  the  chicks. 

Scaley  Leg. — Another  species  of  mite  (Sarcoptes 
mutans),  produces  scaley  leg  in  fowls.  The  mite  burrows 
underneath  the  scales  of  the  leg  and  white  grayish  crusts  are 
formed  which  gradually  enlarge  and  raise  the  scales.  In 
severe  cases  lameness  results  and  even  the  loss  of  toes.  The 
disease  is  contagious.  Disinfective  measures  should  be  ap- 
plied in  the  poultry  house.  Individual  treatment  is  rather 
tedious  but  a  cure  is  easily  affected.  Where  the  case  is  bad 
or  advanced  it  will  usually  be  necessary  to  soak  the  scales 
thoroughly  in  warm  water  and  remove  them  when  it  can  be 
done  without  causing  bleeding,  then  apply  an  ointment  or 
vaseline.  Kerosene  is  an  effective  remedy.  Where  the  dis- 
ease is  not  too  far  advanced  it  will  be  sufficient  to  dip  the 
legs  in  a  can  of  oil  and  hold  them  there  for  half  a  minute. 

Dr.  Theobald  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  there 
are  some  36  distinct  species  of  worms  that  live  as  parasites 
in  fowls.  Some'  of  these  are  of  little  importance.  A  few 
of  the  more  injurious  ones  will  be  mentioned  here. 

The  Gape  Worm  (Syngamus  trachealis) . — This  parasite 
is  very  destructive  to  young  chicks  in  different  sections  of 
the  country.  It  attaches  itself  to  the  inner  lining  of  the 
windpipe  or  trachea.  Contaminated  soil  is  responsible  for 
the  spread  of  this  disease.  This  further  emphasizes  the 
point  that  has  already  been  made,  that  young  chicks  should 
always  be  reared  on  clean,  fresh  ground.  Gape  worms  be- 
come so  numerous  in  the  windpipe  when  they  once  get 
started  that  the  bird  finally  dies  for  lack  of  air.  Some  of 
the  worms  are  coughed  up,  as  well  as  some  of  the  ova  and 
embryos  and  these  are  taken  up  by  other  fowls  and  the 
disease  rapidly  spreads.  The  ground  carries  the  infection 


398  POULTRY  BREEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT 

from  one  year  to  another.  By  cultivating  the  ground  and 
disinfecting  it  with  lime,  the  infection  may  be  destroyed. 
Where  the  disease  is  known  to  exist  it  is  the  safe  plan  not 
to  use  the  same  ground  for  a  year  or  two. 

The  chief  symptoms  are  a  gaping  with  open  beak  and 
stretching  of  the  neck  forward.  The  worm  may  be  removed 
by  twisting  a  horse  hair  in  the  windpipe  and  withdrawing 
it,  or  a  feather  stripped  to  near  the  tip,  dipped  in  oil  or 
turpentine  may  be  used  in  the  same  way.  The  value  of  the 
young  chicks,  however,  will  not  usually  warrant  individual 
treatment.  Reliance  must  be  placed  upon  keeping  the 
chickens  away  from  contaminated  ground. 

Intestinal  Worms. — There  are  numerous  worms  that 
infest  the  digestive  organs  of  the  fowl.  The  round  worms 
are  found  in  the  gullet  or  esophagus.  Another  species  is 
found  in  the  walls  of  the  gizzard.  The  tape  worms  and 
various  other  species  are  found  in  the  intestines.  For  in- 
dividual treatment,  oil  of  turpentine  is  recommended,  one 
teaspoonful  per  fowl,  preferably  given  in  the  morning  fol- 
lowed with  olive  oil  or  castor  oil  a  few  hours  later.  Heavy 
feeding  of  onions  or  garlic  will  aid  in  controlling  these 
parasites.  Another  remedy  is  to  use  powdered  pome- 
granate root  bark,  one  teaspoonful  to  50  birds  given  in  the 
feed. 

There  is  not  space  in  this  book  for  an  extended  discussion 
of  poultry  diseases.  Those  readers  wishing  more  detailed 
information  of  various  diseases  and  their  treatment,  will 
find  several  books  on  this  special  subject.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned:  "Poultry  Diseases  and  Their  Treat- 
ment, "  by  E.  J.  Wortley ;  "Diseases  of  Poultry,"  by  Dr.  D. 
E.  Salmon;  "Diseases  of  Poultry,"  by  Pearl,  Surface  and 
Curtis;  "Poultry  Diseases,"  by  Dr.  B.  F.  Kaupp;  and 
"Parasitic  Diseases  of  Fowls,"  by  Theobald. 


INDEX 


Page 


Albumin 281 

Analysis  of  fowls  and  egg 229 

Animal  food 241 

Ash .    223 


B 


Balanced  rations 219 

Barley 239 

Beef  scrap 243 

Beets 245 

Beet  pulp 246 

Bran    239 

Breed,  Ancona 32 

Andalusian 33 

Black  Spanish   33 

Braekel 34 

Brahma    55 

Campine   33 

Dorking   45 

Faverolle   49 

Hamburg 33 

Houdan 34 

Langshan    60 

La  Fleche 60 

Le  Mans 58 

Leghorn 30 

Minorca   31 

Orpington 46 

Plymouth  Rock   39 

Rhode  Island  Red 43 

Sussex 49 

Wyandotte 41 

Breeding,  principles  of 61 

problems  in    62 

purity  in 68 

Breeds,  economic  qualities  of .  .  27 

edible  meat  on  different.  .  .  52 

egg   30 

fancy 28 

general  purpose  35 

meat    50 

origin  of 30 

"Standard"  classification  of  24 

utility  classification  of 28 

Broilers   274 

Brood  coop 198 


Page 

Brooders,  colony 324 

home-made 324 

lamp 323 

stove  or  room 327 

types  of 323 

ventilation  of 322 

Brooding,  artificial 320 

chicks,  training 322 

period   320 

temperature   320 

Buckwheat   240 

Buttermilk   .                                  .  241 


Cabbages   246 

Capons  and  caponizing 372 

Carbohydrates   226 

Catarrh 382 

Charcoal 247 

Chickenpox 383 

Cholera    383 

Cockerels 273 

Cold  storage 359 

conditions  of 360 

effect  on  prices  of 359 

limitations  of 361 

Colony  system 144 

Corn 237 

Crop  bound 385 

Culling 272 

Cut  bones 241 

Cross  breeding 16,  73 

advantages  of 74 

disadvantages  of 79 

experiments  in 78, 101 


Diarrhoea 383 

Digestibility  of  foods 230 

Digestion  coefficients 232 

Digestive  organs 230 

Diphtheria   384 

Diseases    375 

Disinfection   377 

Domestication  of  fowls 1 

purpose  of 1 

Dominance   84 


399 


400 


INDEX 


Page 

Drainage   168 

Drawn  and  undrawn  poultry. .  .    371 
Dressing,  loss  in  weight  in.  ...    372 

Dropsy 384 

Dust  bath 395 


Edible  meat  on  fowl 372 

Egg-laying  organs 133 

Egg,  structure  of 281 

Egg  production,  limit  of 112 

best  in  first  year 127,  183 

progression  in    109 

regression  in   109 

Eggs,  candling   352 

canned  frozen    361 

classification  of 347 

color  of 351 

composition  of 217 

conditions  that  injure 348 

fertility  and  hatchability  of  299 

for  hatching 297 

fresh  and  stale 354 

gathering  the 349 

grades  of 344 

grading 351 

marking 355 

preservation  of 362 

refrigeration  of 357 

selling,   for  hatching 364 

size  of   351 

testing   299 

washing 350 


Fattening  fowls 274 

batteries 277 

rations 278 

Fats    226 

Fecundity,  inheritance  of..  .  92,  134 

influence  of  sire  and  dam.  107 

Maine  station's  results.  .  .  93 
Oregon  station's  experiments  96 

sex  limited 107 

Feeding  and  exercise 249 

cooked  food 254 

fundamentals  of 210 

ground  and  unground  grain  251 

growing  stock 268 

hopper  .  .  .'.'.'.'.' 254 

limitations  of  ..." 212 

methods  of 249 

purpose  of  223 

rations 256 

small  chickens  .  ,  .  2(55 


Page 

Fencing 205 

portable 203 

Fish  scrap 243 

Food  analyses 227 

animal    241 

carbohydrates  and  fat. .  .  .    226 

composition  of 223 

computing  the  ratio  of.  ...    229 

digestibility  of   230 

digestion  coefficients  of .  .  .    232 

grain   237 

green  or  succulent 244 

mineral  nutrients  of 223 

palatability  of 234 

protein 214 

relation  of,  to  color  of  egg  212 

flavor  of  egg 212 

quality  of  eggs 212 

size  of  eggs 215 

yield  of  eggs 214 

requirements  of  chickens. .    221 

Fowls,  antiquity  of 9 

evolution  of 11 

origin  of 2 

Free  range 144 

Fruit  trees  for  shade 206 

Fruit  growing  and  poultry-keep- 
ing        140 

Fresh  air,  value  of 174,  375 

Fresh    ground,     preventive    of 

diseases  ...  .   376 


Gallus  bankiva 3 

Gape  worm 397 

Green  food 244 

Grit    247 


H 


Hen-hatching 291 

Heredity 62 

Hygienic     conditions,     import- 
ance of 375 

Historical 1 

House,  curtain-front 176 

floor  of 184 

foundation 186 

open-front    186 

portable 187, 193 

space  required 178 

stationary  house 189 

Housing,  essentials  of 160 

purpose  of 1C7 


INDEX 


401 


I 


Page 


Inbreeding 86 

Incubation,  artificial 301 

carbon  dioxide  and  mois- 
ture in  311 

chemical  compossition  of 
chick  influenced  by  meth- 
ods of  316 

cooling  the  eggs 316 

influence  of  moisture  in..    312 

loss  of  weight  in  eggs 313 

methods  of 286 

moisture  in 308,  309 

natural   vs.   artificial 287 

oil  on  egg  shells 319 

period  of 297 

temperature  of 314 

turning  the  eggs 316 

wet  bulb  temperature  as  a 
moisture  guide 309 

Incubator,  choice  of 305 

operating  the 307 

size  of 307 

types  of 305 

Incubator  house  302 

ventilation  of 303 

analysis  of  air  in 304 


Jungle  fowl  cock 3 

hen  .  4 


Killing 368 


Lady  Mat-duff 117,  119 

Laying  longevity   115 

maturity 127 

Lice   395 

Limberneck    385 

Linseed  meal   240 

Locations  for  houses  and  yards  167 

M 

Manure,  preservation  of 208 

Marketing  eggs   333 

rlnssifying  eggs  for 347 

direct     337 

express    338 

how  costs  are  added 336 

indirect 335 

poultry 366 


Page 

Middlings 239 

Milk    241 

Milk  albumin   243 

Mites    393 


N 


Nests    196 

Nutritive  ratio  . .  .   228 


Oats  238 

Oats  and  peas 246 

Oregona  108 

Oyster  shell 247 


Parasites 392 

Parcel  post  shipments  of  eggs.  340 

poultry    371 

Peas    239 

Petaluma  poultry  farming.  .  .  .  140 

Peritonitis    384 

Picking 369 

Portable  fencing  and  houses.  .  203 

Potatoes   246 

Poultry  farming,  systems  of. .  .  138 

backyard    152 

colony   144 

dairying  with 139 

exclusive    152 

fancy 156 

fruit  growing  with 140 

grain  growing  with 140 

intensive 151 

mixed  husbandry 338 

Petaluma 140 

Rhode  Island    140 

specialized 138 

industry 19 

products   19 

publications    19 

Prepotency   83,  85 

Preserving  eggs  in  water  glass  363 


Rations 256 

Reversion    65 

Rheumatism  384 

Rico    240 

Roup   381 

Rye 240 


402 


INDEX 


Page 


Pago 


Scalding  poultry 370 

Scaley  leg 397 

Selection    14 

Shade 206 

Shaping   370 

Shell,    furnishes    lime    for    de- 
veloping chick  311,  316,  317 

structure  of 282 

Soils 167 

Sprouted  oats 246 

Sticking 368 

Storms,  objectionable 170 

Sunflower  seed 240 

Sunshine 169 


Variability 109 

Variation   12,  03 

factors  influencing 13,  15 

Ventilation  in  poultry  house.  .    174 
Vetch  and  oats 245 


w 

Water  glass 303 

Weight  correlated  with  laying.  120 

Wheat 237 

White  Diarrhoea    389 

Worms,  intestinal 398 

Wry  neck   385 


Transportation  cars  for  poultry  367 

Trapnests 198, 199 

Tuberculin  test   380 

Tuberculosis    378 

Type  in  layers 120 


U 


Use  and  disuse  of  parts 16 


Yards 191,  201 

crops  for 192 

cultivation  of 191 

double 203 

hen  capacity  of 191 

size  of 202 

Yolk    282 


RETURN     AGRICULTURE  LIBRARY 

TO—  •*     40Gicmnini  Hall                  642-4493 

LOAN  PERIOD  1 

2  H  PAYS 

3 

A 

5 

6 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

Quarter  loans  are  not  renewable  by  phone 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall 


DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 

APR  2    1979 

'0INA0RIUB  FEB  22 

1979 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
FORM  NO.  DD1,  4m,  477  BERKELEY,  CA  94720 


